Integral Calculus

Techniques of Integration

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Basic Integration Formulas
1. ‫ 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑑 ׬‬+ 𝐶
2. ‫ 𝑢𝑘 = 𝑢𝑑 𝑘 ׬‬+ 𝐶, (any number k)

3. ‫ 𝑢𝑑(׬‬+ 𝑑𝑣) = ‫ 𝑢𝑑 ׬‬+ ‫𝑣𝑑 ׬‬

𝑛 𝑢𝑛+1
4. ‫= 𝑢𝑑 𝑢 ׬‬ 𝑛+1
+𝐶 (𝑛 ≠ −1)

𝑑𝑢
5. ‫׬‬ 𝑢
= ln 𝑢 + 𝐶

6. ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝐶
7. ‫׬‬cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶
8. ‫ ׬‬sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 + 𝐶
9. ‫ ׬‬csc 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢 + 𝐶
10. ‫׬‬sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝐶

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Basic Integration Formulas
1. ‫׬‬csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 + 𝐶
2. ‫ ׬‬tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = −ln cos 𝑢 + 𝐶 = ln sec 𝑢 + 𝐶
3. ‫ ׬‬cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = ln sin 𝑢 + 𝐶 = − ln csc 𝑢 + 𝐶
4. ‫ 𝑢 𝑒 = 𝑢𝑑 𝑢 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝐶
𝑎𝑢
5. ‫׬‬ 𝑎𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 (𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1)
ln 𝑎

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Making a simplifying substitution

Example 1: Evaluate the following integral

2𝑥 − 9
න 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 − 9𝑥 + 1
Solution:
Let: 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 1 ,𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 9
2𝑥 − 9 𝑑𝑢
න 𝑑𝑥 = න = න𝑢 −1Τ2 𝑑𝑢
𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 1 𝑢

1
−2+1
𝑢
= +𝐶
1
−2 + 1

= 2𝑢1Τ2 + 𝐶 = 2 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 1 + 𝐶

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Completing the Square

Example 2: Evaluate the following integral

𝑑𝑥
න
8𝑥 − 𝑥 2
Solution:
8𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = − 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 = − 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 + 16 = 16 − 𝑥 − 4 2

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
න =න =න
8𝑥 − 𝑥 2 16 − 𝑥 − 4 2 𝑎2 − 𝑢2

𝑢
= sin−1 +𝐶
𝑎

𝑥−4
= sin−1 +𝐶
4

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Expanding a Power and Using Trigonometric Identity

Example 3: Evaluate the following integral

න sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution: 2 2
න sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න(sec 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

But, sec 2 𝑥 = tan2 𝑥 + 1, therefore,

2 2
න(sec 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = න(sec 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

= 2 නsec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 නsec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − න1 𝑑𝑥

= 2 tan 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

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Eliminating a Square Root

Example 4: Evaluate the following integral

𝜋 Τ4
න 1 + cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Solution: 2
1 + cos 2𝑥
cos 𝑥 = or 1 + cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos2 𝑥
2
With the same identity the angle x can be doubled: 1 + cos 4𝑥 = 2 cos 2 2𝑥

𝜋 Τ4 𝜋 Τ4
න 1 + cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 2 cos2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝜋Τ4
= 2න cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

𝜋Τ4
sin 2𝑥 1 1
= 2 = 2 −0 =
2 0 2 2

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Separating a fraction

Example 5: Evaluate the following integral

3𝑥 + 2
න 𝑑𝑥
1− 𝑥2
Solution:
The second of these integrals will be solved as:
3𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
න 𝑑𝑥 = 3 න + 2න
1 − 𝑥2 1 − 𝑥2 1 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
2න = 2 sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
1 1 − 𝑥2
𝑢 = 1 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑑𝑢 = −2𝑥𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑢
2
The combination of these results and renaming C1 + C2 as C
The first of these integrals will be solved as: will give:
1
𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑢 3 1 3𝑥 + 2
2 −2
∴ 3න = 3න = − න 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 න 𝑑𝑥 = −3 1 − 𝑥 2 + 2 sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 − 𝑥2 𝑢 2 1 − 𝑥2
1
3 𝑢2
=− + 𝐶1 = −3 1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶1
2 1
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INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Rational function:
f ( x) = p( x)
q( x)

Example Example
1 1
Find
 x dx Find
 x −1
dx

Example
1
Find
 x−a
dx

Example Example
x+2 x − 4x
2
Find
 x−3
dx Find
 x −3
dx
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

4  1 1 
 dx =   − dx
x −4  x−2 x+2
2

1 1 4
−
x−2 x+2 x −4
2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

x − x2 1 1
 ( x 2 + 1)( x + 1) dx = dx −  dx
x +1
2
x +1

1
−
1 x−x 2

x +1 x +1
2
( x + 1)( x + 1)
2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1 1 4
−
x−2 x+2 x −4
2

1
−
1 x−x 2

x +1 x +1
2
( x + 1)( x + 1)
2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Example
4 4 A B
= = +
x −4
2
( x − 2)( x + 2) x−2 x+2

Multiply by ( x − 2)( x + 2) 3 The Heaviside

“Cover-up”
4 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 2) 4 A B
= +
( x − 2)( x + 2) x − 2 x + 2

1 Match coeff 2 subsitute

subsitute
x=2
4
A=
(2 + 2)
4 = ( A + B) x + (2 A − 2B)
4 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 2)
4 A B
= +
0 = A+ B ( x − 2)( x + 2) x − 2 x + 2
x=2 4 = 4A
4 = 2 A − 2B x = −2
4
x = −2 4 = −4 B B=
(−2 − 2)
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

1 1
=
3 x5 − 48 x + x 4 −16 ( x 2 + 4 )( x 2 − 4 )(3 x +1)

irreducible linear factor

quadratic reducible
factor quadratic
factor

1 1
=
3 x5 − 48 x + x 4 −16 ( x 2 + 4 )( x − 2 )( x + 2 )(3 x +1) all factors are irreducible
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

 1
p( x) Use long division if deg( p)  deg( q)
q( x)
dx
2x + 5
2 Check if we can use subsitution
x 2 + 5x + 1

3 Factor q(x) as linear factors or irreducible quadratic

q( x) = ( x −1)(2 x − 3) q( x) = ( x 2 + 4)( x − 3)

Express p(x)/q(x) as a sum of partial fraction

4 1 x −1
+ 2
x+2 x +5
A
(ax + b)i
or
Ax + B
(ax 2 + bx + c)i

q(x)= product of linear factor q(x)= product of quadratic (irred)

All distinct Some repeated

All distinct
repeated
case1 case3 case4
case2
1
1 1 1
( x + 2)( x − 3)( x + 5)
( x + 2)( x − 3) 2 ( x 2 + 4)( x 2 + 1) ( x 2 + 4)3 ( x 2 + 1) 2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

q(x)= product of linear factor

Example
1
All distinct Some
repeated
Find
 x −4
2
dx
case1
case2

−1
Example x2 + 2x −1
7 2
A= B= C=
I =
(−2)(−1) (2)(1) (1)(−1)
dx
x 3 − 3x 2 + 2 x
Cover-up
x2 + 2x −1 x2 + 2x −1 =
A
+
B
+
C
=
x − 3 x + 2 x x( x − 2)( x − 1)
3 2
x x − 2 x −1

−1
1 7
−
I = 2
dx +  2
dx +  dx
x x−2 x −1
1 7
=− ln x + ln x − 2 − ln x − 1 + C
2 2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

q(x)= product of linear factor

Remark: only use subsitue
method or match coeff to find
the constants A,B,C,D,E.
All distinct Some
repeated
case1
case2
Example

x+5 A B C D E
= + + + +
( x + 1) ( x − 1)
2 3
x + 1 ( x + 1) 2
x − 1 ( x − 1) 2
( x − 1)3

Example x4 − 2x2 + 4x +1 Partial 4x A B C

I = dx = + +
x3 − x 2 − x + 1 Fraction: ( x + 1)( x − 1) 2
x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2

x4 − 2x2 + 4x +1 4x Multiply: 4 x = A( x − 1) 2 + B( x + 1)( x − 1) + C ( x + 1)

Long = ( x + 1) + 3
Division: x − x − x + 1
3 2
x − x2 − x +1
subsitute: x =1 → 4 = 2C
x = −1 → − 4 = 4A
4x 4x
=
Factor: x 3 − x 2 − x + 1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) 2 x=0 → 0 = A− B +C

 −1 1 2 
Integrate: I =   x + 1 + + + dx
 x + 1 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2 
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

q(x)= product of linear factor

All distinct Some

repeated
case1
case2
Example
1
=
( x + 1) ( x − 1) ( x + 3)
2 3

A B C D E F
+ + + + +
x +1 ( x + 1) 2
x −1 ( x − 1) 2
( x − 1) 3
( x + 3)
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

q(x)= product of quadratic (irred)

All distinct repeated

case3 case4

Example Expand by partial fraction (DONOT EVALUATE )

x A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 + 2
( x − 2)( x + 1)( x + 4)
2 2
x−2 x +1 x + 4

Example Expand by partial fraction (DONOT EVALUATE )

x Ax + B Cx + D Ex + F
= + +
( x + 1)( x + 4)
2 2 2
x +1
2
x +4
2
( x 2 + 4) 2
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Expand by partial

Find the constants

Evaluate the integral