Lecture notes on

Statistics and Research Methods (WSM 201)

Please refer it with class presentations, notes and tutorials

Mathematics and statistics, while related, have distinct focuses.

Mathematics is a broad, abstract science dealing with numbers, shapes, and patterns.

Statistics, on the other hand, is a branch of applied mathematics focused on collecting, analyzing,
interpreting, and presenting data to make inferences and predictions.

Essentially, mathematics provides the tools and framework, while statistics applies these tools to real-
world data.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Mathematics:
 Abstract and Theoretical: Mathematics explores fundamental concepts and relationships, often
without direct reference to real-world phenomena.
 Deductive Reasoning: Mathematical proofs rely on logical deduction and established axioms to
arrive at definitive conclusions.
 Focus on Certainty: Mathematical results are typically precise and unambiguous.
 Examples: Algebra, calculus, geometry, number theory.

Statistics:
 Applied and Data-Driven: Statistics is concerned with analyzing data collected from real-world
situations.
 Inductive Reasoning: Statistical conclusions are based on probabilities and patterns observed in
data, and are therefore subject to uncertainty.
 Focus on Uncertainty: Statistical analysis aims to quantify and manage uncertainty in data to make
predictions and informed decisions.
 Examples: A/B testing, regression analysis, hypothesis testing.

Key Differences:

 Role of Data: Data collection is integral to statistics, while it is not always a primary concern in
mathematics.
 Nature of Conclusions: Mathematical conclusions are often certain, while statistical conclusions
are probabilistic and subject to interpretation.
 Context: Statistics requires context to be meaningful, whereas mathematics can often be studied in
isolation.
 Tools and Techniques: While both fields use mathematical tools, statistics utilizes specialized
techniques like probability distributions, hypothesis testing, and regression analysis to analyze
data.
In essence, mathematics provides the foundation, while statistics builds upon that foundation to
extract meaningful insights from data and make informed decisions.
A statistics refers to the field of study concerned with the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation,
and organization of data.

A statistic (singular) is a single numerical value that describes a characteristic of a sample of data.

Think of it this way: statistics is the overall process, while a statistic is one piece of information derived
from that process.

Here's a more detailed breakdown:

Statistics (the field):

 Statistics is a branch of mathematics focused on developing and applying methods to collect,
analyze, interpret, and present data.
 It encompasses a wide range of techniques used to understand patterns, make predictions, and
draw conclusions from data.
 Examples of applications of statistics include:
o Market research: Analyzing customer preferences and trends.
o Scientific research: Determining the effectiveness of new drugs or treatments.
o Financial analysis: Forecasting stock prices and managing risk.
o Social sciences: Studying demographics and social trends.

Statistic (a single value):

 A statistic is a numerical quantity calculated from a sample of data.
 It provides a summary measure of a particular characteristic of the sample.
 Examples of statistics include:
o Sample mean: The average value of a set of data points.
o Sample standard deviation: A measure of the spread or variability of the data.
o Sample proportion: The fraction of data points that satisfy a specific condition.
o Sample median: The middle value in a sorted set of data.

Example: If you survey 100 students about their favorite color, the average number of students who
prefer blue (e.g., 30 out of 100) is a statistic. The overall field of study, including the survey design, data
analysis, and interpretation of the results, is statistics.

In essence, statistics is the broader discipline, while a statistic is a specific numerical measure derived
from data within that discipline
1. Collection and Representation of Data

In forestry, data collection is the first and most essential step for planning, management, resource
estimation, and decision-making. Data may include tree height, diameter, volume, species count, soil
nutrients, rainfall, biomass, and forest health indicators.

a. Methods of Data Collection

Primary data: Data collected directly from the field through surveys, measurements, experiments, sample
plots, transects, and inventories. Examples include measuring DBH (diameter at breast height), counting
trees in a plot, or recording soil pH.

Secondary data: Information taken from existing sources like forest survey reports, research papers,
remote sensing data, GIS layers, weather station records, and government databases.

b. Steps in Data Compilation

Compilation means organizing and assembling raw field data in a systematic form. Steps include:

a) Checking data for accuracy and consistency

b) Removing incorrect values or outliers
c) Arranging data in logical sequence
d) Preparing sheets or digital files for further analysis
e) Summarizing data under related headings such as species name, age class, DBH class, and height
class.
f) Tabulation of Data

2. Tabulation

Tabulation is the process of presenting data in a table format. Tables help in easy comparison,
classification, and further analysis.

a. Types of tables:

Simple table: Contains only one characteristic such as DBH of trees.

Double or two-way table: Contains two characteristics such as DBH classes and species.

Complex table: Contains multiple variables such as DBH, height, species, and age class.

b. Steps in preparing a table:

a) Define the title

b) Decide the rows and columns
c) Insert frequency or values
d) Add unit of measurement
e) Ensure clarity and readability
c. Importance of tabulation in WST:

It helps in biomass inventory analysis, growth studies, working plan preparation, and wildlife habitat
assessment.

3. Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution is an arrangement of data that shows the number of observations (frequency)
falling within specified intervals (class intervals).

Example: DBH classes like 10–20 cm, 20–30 cm, 30–40 cm.

Steps for preparing a frequency distribution:

a) Identify minimum and maximum values

b) Decide class interval size
c) Form class intervals
d) Count the number of observations in each class
e) Prepare a frequency table

Uses in forestry:

Frequency distribution helps in understanding size-class distribution of trees, regeneration status, species
diversity, age structure, and stand structure.

4. Measures of Central Tendency

Central tendency represents the average or middle value of data. It helps in summarizing large data into a
single representative value. Three important measures are mean, median, and mode.

a. Mean

Mean is the arithmetic average of data.

For ungrouped data:

Mean = Sum of all observations / Number of observations

Example: Tree heights = 10, 12, 15, 13, 20

Mean = (10 + 12 + 15 + 13 + 20) / 5 = 14

For grouped data:

Mean = Σfm / Σf

Where f = frequency, m = class midpoint

Uses in forestry: Used to calculate average height, diameter, biomass, seed weight, rainfall, etc.
b. Median

Median is the middle value when data is arranged in ascending or descending order.

For ungrouped data:

If n is odd, median is the middle value.

If n is even, median = average of the two middle values.

For grouped data:

Median formula = l + [(N/2 – C)/f] × h

Where

l = lower limit of median class

N = total frequency

C = cumulative frequency before the median class

f = frequency of median class

h = class width

Uses in forestry: Median is useful when data contains extreme values, such as irregular tree heights or
rainfall data.

c. Mode

Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in the dataset.

For ungrouped data:

Mode is the most repeated value.

For grouped data:

Mode = l + [(f1 – f0) / (2f1 – f0 – f2)] × h

Where,

l = lower limit of modal class

f1 = frequency of modal class

f0 = frequency before modal class

f2 = frequency after modal class

h = class interval
Uses in forestry: Mode is used to identify the most common DBH class, species count class, or biomass
category in a forest stand.

Q. Write a short note on standard deviation with its type and formulas.

Q. Frequency distribution and its use in forestry.

5. Importance of Statistical Methods in WST

Statistical methods help foresters make scientific and data-driven decisions. They are used for:

a) Forest inventory and volume estimation

b) Growth and yield prediction
c) Forest management planning
d) Sustainable harvesting calculations
e) Monitoring forest health and biodiversity
f) Estimating biomass and carbon stock
g) Assessing regeneration status and species distribution
h) Analyzing climatic and soil data for ecological studies

6. Measure of Dispersion

Dispersion refers to the spread or variability in a dataset. While measures of central tendency describe the
average, dispersion shows how much the data values deviate from the average. In forestry, dispersion
helps understand variation in tree height, DBH, biomass, soil nutrients, or rainfall patterns. Common
measures include range, variance, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, skewness, and kurtosis.

a. Range

Range is the simplest measure of dispersion.

Range = Maximum value – Minimum value

It helps understand the spread of tree height or diameter values. However, it does not consider all
observations.

b. Variance

Variance measures the average squared deviation of each observation from the mean.

For ungrouped data:

Variance = Σ(x – mean)² / n

For grouped data:

Variance = Σf(m – mean)² / N

Where m is midpoint, f is frequency, N is total frequency.

In forestry, variance helps estimate variability in tree diameters or soil properties.