Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another for temporary or permanent

settlement. It is a historical and global phenomenon shaped by economic, political, social,

environmental, and security-related factors. People migrate for employment, education, business,
tourism, or better living conditions, while others are forced to migrate because of war, persecution,
discrimination, poverty, climate change, or political instability. Human migration becomes a political
and policy issue when migrants seek long-term settlement in another state.

The most important international framework governing migration and refugee protection is the
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, adopted by the United Nations in 1951, along with
the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. These established a common international
standard for defining refugees and protecting their rights. According to the Convention, a refugee is a
person with a “well-founded fear of persecution” based on race, religion, nationality, political
opinion, or membership of a particular social group, who is outside their country and unable or
unwilling to seek its protection. However, states retain discretion in granting asylum and recognizing
refugee status.

Migration can take several forms. Internal migration refers to movement within a country, while
external migration involves crossing international borders. Emigration means leaving one’s country,
whereas immigration refers to entering another country. Other forms include return migration and
seasonal migration linked to labour demand or climatic conditions. Migration theory also categorizes
migrants as voluntary or involuntary, and as regular or irregular migrants. Regular migrants possess
legal authorization to enter and reside in a country, while irregular or undocumented migrants enter
without official permission and often lack legal protections.

The scale of migration has increased rapidly due to globalization and labour mobility. According to
the International Organization for Migration (IOM) World Migration Report 2020, there were nearly
272 million international migrants globally by June 2019, around 51 million more than in 2010.
Nearly two-thirds were labour migrants, and migrants constituted 3.5% of the world population.

Migration has also been integrated into global development discourse through the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development adopted in 2015. Around 11 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) contain migration-related targets focusing on safe, orderly, regular, and responsible migration,
trafficking prevention, remittances, and mobility. The Agenda’s core principle of “leave no one
behind” extends protection and inclusion to migrants as well.

Migration drivers refer to the macro, meso, and micro-level factors that influence people’s decisions
to migrate or remain in a particular place. Migration studies emphasize that migration is not caused
by a single “root cause” but by a complex interaction of economic, political, social, cultural,
demographic, and environmental factors. These drivers shape migration opportunities, routes, and
destination choices in highly context-specific ways.

Economic inequalities between regions, especially between the Global North and South, remain
major migration drivers. Other factors include unemployment, poverty, climate change, conflict,
persecution, political instability, social insecurity, marriage, education, and better life prospects.
Environmental degradation and sudden crises can also trigger displacement. Migration is therefore
both voluntary and involuntary in nature.

Migration drivers operate at different levels. Predisposing drivers are broad structural conditions
such as societal inequalities and weak economic systems that create a background for migration.
More proximate drivers localize these broader conditions and directly affect individuals’ choices and
opportunities. Finally, triggering drivers are immediate causes that compel migration, such as job
loss, violence, persecution, natural disasters, or asset destruction. Thus, migration is a highly context-
dependent process shaped by interconnected and dynamic factors operating across time and place.

Human rights are universal and apply to every individual irrespective of nationality, citizenship, or
legal status. International human rights law emphasizes non-discrimination and ensures that even
when states differentiate between citizens and non-citizens, such distinctions must remain fair and
just. Therefore, human rights provide an essential framework for protecting migrants from
marginalization, exploitation, and exclusion, making migrant welfare central to migration policies.

Forced displacement represents a critical intersection between migration, refugee protection, and
international law. Refugees and displaced persons often cannot return to their home countries due
to threats to their life, freedom, or security arising from persecution, conflict, or violence. In such
cases, host states have a responsibility to protect them and avoid forcible return. These migrants
possess specific rights and protections under international law. Addressing forced displacement also
requires examining its root causes, including flawed development processes, political instability,
conflict, and undemocratic governance structures that create insecurity and compel people to
migrate.

Migration becomes a problem in the modern world because states are sovereign entities with
defined borders and the authority to control who enters, stays, and enjoys rights within their
territory. States view unrestricted migration as a challenge to their sovereignty and security, leading
them to impose restrictions on the free movement of people.

One major concern is national security, as governments fear illegal entry, crime, or terrorism.
Another concern is the economic and social burden on welfare states, which must provide
healthcare, education, housing, and other public services to citizens and immigrants alike. Since
resources and employment opportunities are limited, immigrants may be viewed as competitors for
scarce resources.

Cultural concerns also influence migration debates. Conservative and native groups often fear that
migrants from different cultural or ethnic backgrounds may weaken national identity and cultural
integrity. However, supporters of open migration argue for freer movement on humanitarian grounds
and for the protection of individual freedom and human rights.

Global migration has increased sharply since the late twentieth century. International migrants
numbered around 214 million in 2010 and nearly 280 million by 2020. A major reason for this rise
was the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, Yugoslavia in 1992, and Czechoslovakia in 1993,
which transformed many internal migrants into international migrants. Other important causes
include globalization, population growth, technological advancements, cheaper transportation, and
improved communication networks.

According to the International Organization for Migration, around 150.3 million people were labour
migrants by 2015, while 4.8 million migrated for education by 2016. By the end of 2017, about 68.5
million people were forcibly displaced due to conflict, persecution, and human rights violations. India
became the largest source of migrants in 2019 with nearly 18 million migrants globally.

ntroduction

South Asia is one of the world’s largest migration regions, comprising nearly 1.94 billion people
across countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. The region
experiences large-scale internal, regional, and international migration driven by conflict, labour
demand, political instability, and environmental disasters. It is also a major supplier of labour
migrants to the Gulf countries.

Historical and Political Migration

Migration in South Asia has been shaped by major historical events. The partition of India in 1947
caused one of the largest migrations in history, with nearly five million Hindus and Sikhs moving to
India and around six million Muslims migrating to Pakistan. The Iranian Revolution and the Iran-Iraq
War during the 1980s created large Iranian diasporas. Similarly, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in
1979 displaced nearly six million Afghans, mainly to Pakistan and Iran. Sri Lanka’s prolonged civil war
also generated massive refugee flows and internal displacement.

Labour Migration and Refugees

Since the 1970s oil boom, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have become major
destinations for South Asian migrant workers. Initially dominated by male construction workers,
migration later expanded to semi-skilled workers and women employed as domestic workers. The
region also hosts major refugee populations, including Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh’s Cox’s Bazar
and Tibetan and Bhutanese refugees in India and Nepal.

Climate Change and COVID-19

South Asia is highly vulnerable to climate-induced displacement caused by floods, cyclones,

droughts, sea-level rise, and coastal erosion. Countries like Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan face
severe risks. The COVID-19 pandemic further intensified migration and humanitarian challenges,
severely affecting livelihoods, mobility, and public health across the region.

Regional and International Efforts on Migration in South Asia

Several regional and international organizations have taken important steps to address migration
issues in South Asia. The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), comprising
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, is the major
regional forum dealing with political, economic, social, and cultural cooperation. The South Asian
Free Trade Area came into force in 2006 as a step towards regional economic integration. SAARC also
adopted conventions against trafficking of women and children and, through the 2014 Kathmandu
Declaration, committed to safe and orderly labour migration.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (ARF), established in 1994, addresses
regional security concerns such as terrorism, trafficking, piracy, and disaster management. India also
participates in the East Asia Summit (EAS), which led to the creation of the Economic Research
Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA) working on migration-related issues.

The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC),
founded in 1997, promotes cooperation in economic, social, and security matters, including human
trafficking and illegal migration.

South Asian countries are also members of the Global Forum on Migration and Development
(GFMD), while Nepal and Bangladesh are recognized as champion countries under the Global
Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM).

Other important platforms include the Bali Process on trafficking and smuggling, the Abu Dhabi
Dialogue on labour migration, the Colombo Process promoting safe migration, the Asia-Europe
Meeting (ASEM), and the Budapest Process connecting Europe and Asia on migration governance.
The COVID-19 pandemic severely affected migrants through unemployment, deportation, border
closures, and mass return migration. By April 2021, around 5.8 million Indians had returned home,
while nearly 870,000 undocumented Afghans returned from Iran and Pakistan.

Migration and Security

Migration has increasingly become linked with security concerns in modern states. Earlier, migration
was largely viewed as a positive phenomenon because migrants contributed cheap labour, skills, and
productivity to host economies. However, over time migration came to be viewed through the
framework of “securitization,” where migrants were increasingly perceived as potential threats to
national security, public order, and social stability.

Host countries often associate migration with competition over jobs, housing, healthcare, and other
scarce resources, which may create internal unrest and tensions between migrants and local
populations. Some groups also perceive migrants as threats to cultural identity and social cohesion.
Migration is further connected with concerns relating to crime, violence, and terrorism, leading
states to strengthen border security and immigration controls.

There is also a significant gender dimension to migration, especially in cases of human trafficking.
According to the International Organization for Migration, women constituted 48.8% of migrants in
2017. The treatment of trafficked women depends on how states categorize them — as victims,
illegal migrants, or prostitutes. Victims may receive rehabilitation or repatriation, while illegal
migrants are often detained and deported. Since these categories frequently overlap, many trafficked
women remain vulnerable to exploitation and denial of rights.

Scholar Jef Huysmans explained this shift in the European context. During the 1950s and early 1960s,
European states welcomed migrant labour for economic growth. However, from the late 1960s
migration became politicized as migrant families settled permanently, challenging welfare systems
and public order. By the late 1980s and early 1990s, migration became securitized and linked with
terrorism, crime, and violence, bringing it within the internal security framework of European states.