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FI*I EiHT I N STRU M HNTSI

Part I, Chapter 2 - Airplane Systems

 ffiffiffiry*ffiN A
A*ffiffitutuNffiffi

Although airplanes are designed for a variety of purposes, the basic components of most
airplanes are essentially the same. Once the practical aspects of building an airworthy
craft are resolved, what ultimately becomesthe final model is largely a matter of the orig-
inal design objectives and [Link] a sensethen, airplane design is a combination of
art and science. Although the artistic possibilities are virtually limitless, the
relatively inflexible scientific requirements for manned flight dictate that
most airplane structures include, at a minimum, a fuselage, wings, an
empennage, landing gear, and a powerplant. [Figure 2-'].]

PowerPlant-

LandingGear

Figure [Link],
an airplaneis made up of five [Link] fuselageis consideredto
be the centralcomponent,sincethe powerplant, wings,empennage,and landinggear are
attachedto it.
Al eele.N Esi SEtrTIEN A

Tne FUSELAEIE
The fuselage houses the cabin and/or cockpit which contains seatsfor the occupants and
the controls for the airplane. In addition, the fuselage may also provide room for cargo
and attachment points for the other major airplane components. Although somewhat
uncommon today, most early aircraft utilized an open truss structure. Aircraft employ-
ing open truss construction can be identified by the clearly visible struts and wire-braced
wings. [Figure 2-2]

As technology progressed, aircraft designers began to enclose the truss members to

streamline the airplane and improve performance. This was originally accomplished
with cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to lightweight metals, such as aluminum.
In some cases,the outside skin can support all, or a portion, of the flight loads. Most
modern aircraft use a form of
this stressed skin structure
known as monocoque or semi-
monocoque construction.

[Link]
was
common to manyearlyaircraft.

2-3
 tr HAPTE R 2 Areela,rue Svsrevs

The monocoque design uses the skin to

support almost all imposed loads. This
structure can be very strong, but cannot
tolerate any dents or deformation of the
surface. This characteristic is easily
demonstrated by a thin aluminum bever-
age can. You can exert a large force to the
ends of the can without causing any dam-
age, however, if the side of the can is
dented only slightly, the can wiII collapse
easily. Due to the limitations of the mono-
coque design, a semi-monocoque struc-
ture is used on many of today's aircraft.
The semi-monocoque system uses a sub-
structure riveted to the airplane's skin to
maintain the shape of the airframe and
increase its strength. [Figure 2-Jl

TrrE WtNtri
When air flows around the wings of an
airplane, it generates a force called lift
Figure 2-3. Semi-monocoque construction incorporates
a that helps the airplane fly. Wings are con-
substructurefor added strength. toured to take maximum advantaqe of this
force, and may be attached at the top,
middle, or lower portion of the [Link] designs are referred to as high-, mid,-, and
Iow-wing, respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set
of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes.
[Figure 2-4]

Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces
referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing
outward to the tip and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that
cause the airplane to turn. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to the midpoint of
each wing. The flaps are normally flush
with the wing's surface during cruising
flight. When extended, the flaps move
simultaneously downward to increase
the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs
and landings. [Figure 2-5]

Figure 2-4. Monoplanesincorporate

a singleset of wingswhilebiplanes
use two sets of wings stackedverti-
cally.
AI RpLAN ES =iEtrTIEN

Figure [Link] aileronsare normallyconnectedto the controlwheelby a series

of chains,cables,bellcranks, and [Link] you turn the wheelto the left,
the left aileronmovesup and the right [Link],this is how you
start a turn to the [Link] wheel to the right has the [Link]
can operatethe flaps usinga switchor handlelocatedin the [Link] are
used primarilyfor takeoffsand landings.

TpTe EVPENNATIE
The empennage consists of the vertical stabilizer, or fin, and the horizontal stabilizer.
These two surfaces act like the feathers on an arrow to steady the airplane and help you
maintain a straight path through the air. [Figure 2-6]

Figure 2-6. The verticaland horizontalstabilizers

are locatedon the empennage.

The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer and can be used to move the
nose of the airplane left or right, much like a rudder is used to turn a ship. However, the
airplane differs in that you will normally need to use the rudder in combination with the
ailerons to turn an airplane correctly. lFigure 2-71

Figure [Link] rudderwith your feet,

usingpedalslocatedin the [Link] you press
the left rudderpedal,connectingcablesmovethe
rudderto the leftwhichcausesthe airplane'snoseto
move to the [Link] right pedal movesthe
rudderand noseto the right.
tr HAPTE R 2 [Link] Svsrevs

The elevator is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer. During flight, you can
use it to move the nose up and down, directing the airplane to the desired altitude, or
height. [Figure 2-8]

Figure [Link] elevatoris controlledby the control

wheelthrougha systemof cables,pulleys,and other
[Link] you pull backon the wheel,
the elevatorand nose moveup;whenyou pushfor-
ward, the elevatorand nose move down.

Some empennage designs use a one-piece horizontal stabihzer called a stabilator. Used
in lieu of an elevator, the stabilator pivots up and down on a central hinge point. When
you pull back on the control wheel, the nose moves up; when you push forward, the
nose moves down. [Figure 2-9]

Figure 2-9. Some airplanesuse a stabilator

whichperformsthe same functionas the hori-
zontalstabilizerlelevatorcombination.

Stabilator

TrrIM DEVItrEs
Some airplanes may include small hinged trim devices attached to the trailing edge of
one or more of the control [Link] mechanisms are used to help minimize your
workload by aerodynamically helping you move a control surface, or maintain the sur-
face in a desired position. One such device commonly used on many training airplanes
is called a trim tab. If an airplane uses only one trim tab, it is usually located on the
elevator. [Figure 2-1Ol

Figure 2'[Link] trim tab lessensthe resis-

tanceyou feel on the flightcontrolsdue to air-
flow over the [Link]
trim tab, locatedon the elevator,is controlled
TrimTab
by a wheelin the cockpit(inset).
\
Ar eeua.N ES EiEGTIT]N A i

A stabilator normally uses an anti-servo tab to provide you with a control "feel" similar
to what you experience with an elevator. Without the anti-servo tab, control forces from
the stabilator would be so light that you might "over control" the airplane or move the
control wheel too far to obtain the desired result. The anti-servo tab also functions as a
trim tab to maintain the stabilator in the desired position.

L,qNDrNEi trignre
The landing gear absorbs landing loads and
supports the airplane on the ground.
Typically, the landing gear consists of three
wheels - two main wheels which are located
on either side of the fuselageand a third wheel
positioned either at the front or rear of the air-
plane. Landing gear employing a rear-mounted
wheel is called conventional landing gear.
Airplanes equipped with conventional land-
ing gear are sometimes referred to as tailwheel
airplanes. [Figure 2-1,1,1

Figure 2-1'[Link] the addedclearance

betweenthe propellerand the ground,conventional
gear airplanesare desirablefor operationson
unimproved fields.

When the third wheel is located on the nose. it is

called a nosewheel, and the design is referred to as
tricycle gear. Nosewheels are normally either steer-
able or castering. Steerable nosewheels are linked
to the rudders by cables or rods while castering
nosewheels are not. In both cases,you steer the air-
plane using the rudder pedals, however, airplanes
with a castering nosewheel may require you to
combine the use of the rudder pedals with inde-
pendent use of the brakes, particularly in tight Figure [Link] is used on many
turns. [Figure 2-I2l of today'saircraft,includingalmostall modern
transportcategoryairplanes.

Landing gear can also be classified as either fixed or retractable. Fixed gear always
remains extended and has the advantage of simplicity combined with low cost.
Retractable gear is designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the landing gear to
be stowed inside the structure during cruising flight. The increased weight and cost of
r et r a c ta b l e g e a r s y s te ms n o rma l l y l i mi ts thei r use to hi gh performance ai rcraft.
[ F igu re 2 -1 ,3 ]

Figure [Link] fixedlandinggearwhilehigherperformance

airplanesare
generallyequippedwith retractable
landinggear.
tr HAPTE R 2
Aleel-a,Ns SvsrEMEi

Water, Water Everywhere...

Many years ago when hard surfacedrunwayswere more of a luxury than
a common occurrence,the Naw and sev-
eral airlines.u-sed
large flying boats to feriy passengersaroundthe world.
[FigureA] The e-xcessivesize ano *"igr,,
of theseaircraft*"l,i?.lu tl: ,t" ofllyingboatsunprofitable
andtheyoisappeareo
tromtre militarvanoa,; ;";;;;
P a r t i c u l a r | Y w i t h t h e pT:0"
ro|iferationofhardsurtaceJrunWaysandadvanceotongonn.",*'"""oJ;;;.'*,

The desire to operatefrom water has not faded, [Link]

fact, water-capableairpranescan be efiremery practicalfor
flights to remote areas where even dirt or graJs lanoingstrips
are not [Link] of today'slandplanescan be fitted with
twin floats that support them on water,Normally,these types of
airplanesare referredto as seaplanes.[Figure B] A plane that
has the capabilityto operatefrom both land and water is
knownas an amphibian.A true amphibianairplaneuses a hull
much like that of a boat and outriggerfloats on the wings for
support during water [Link] are used

Laruptrurn ffiignm ffirrouT*t

The wheels of an airplane are attached to the airplane structure
by struts that usually
have some ability to absorb the shock of landing and taxiing over
rough ground. The
spring steel and bungee cord struts do not actually absorb Jny sho"t,
Uni accept the
shock and transmit it to the airplane structure at an acceptablu .ut" that
reduces stress as
well as the tendency for the airplane to bounce. [Figure z-t+]

Figure 2-"14"Springsteel {left}and bungeecord struts

{right}accept and transrnttshocksto the
airplaneat an acceplabNe nate.
[Link] EiEtrTIEN

Figure [Link] oleo strut consistsof an

enclosedcylinderwhichhousesa piston,oil,
and air, lt absorbspressurerapidlyand then
slowlyreleasesit.

The most widely used type of strut is the air-oil shock absorber
which is usually included as an integral part of the wheel
attachment assembly. Normally referred to as an oleo strut, this
type of shock uses a piston enclosed in a cylinder with oil and
compressed air to absorb the bumps and jolts encountered dur-
ing landing and taxi operations. [Figure 2-1,51

BFUAKTEI
The typical training airplane uses disc brakes located on the
main wheels. [Figure 2-16] Equal pressure may be applied to
each brake simultaneously by pressing on the top of each rud-
der pedal to stop or slow the airplane in a straight line. The
brakes may also be applied to varying degrees independent of
each other. This technique, known as differential braking, is
normally used to help steer the airplane during ground opera-
tions. Most airplanes also provide a hand-operated parking
brake that holds pressure on both brakes to keep the airplane
from rolling when your feet are off the pedals.
Figure 2-16. Most lightgeneralaviation
airplanesuse a hydraulicallyactuated
disc brakeon each mainwheel.

TI-TE PTTWTFIPI ANT

In small airplanes, the powerplant includes both the engine and
the propeller. The primary function of the engine is to provide
the power to turn the propeller. Accessories mounted on, or
connected to the engine generate electrical power, create a
vacuum source for some flight instruments, and, in most single-
engine airplanes, provide a source of heat for the pilot and
passengers.A firewall, which is located between the engine
compartment and the cockpit, not only protects the occupants,
but also serves as a mounting point for the engine. The engine
compartment is enclosed by a cowling. Aside from streamlining
the nose of the airplane, the cowling helps cool the engine by
ducting air around the cylin-
ders. [Figure 2-171

The propeller, mounted on the

front of the engine, translates the Figure [Link]
rotating force of the engine into powerand transmitsit to the propeller.
a forward-acting force called
thrust that helps to move the air-
plane through air. Although the number of blades on a
propeller can vary, most general aviation training
airplanes use a two-bladed propeller. [Figure 2-18]

Figure [Link] propellerreceivespower

fromthe engineand providesthrustto help
movethe airplanethroughthe air.
 tr HAPTE R 2 ArR.;:LANE Svsrevs

P I LtrTT' S trI P E FI/ATIN Ei

H,q,NDEtT]If K
Most of the pertinent information about a particular make and model of airplane can be
found in the pilot's operating handbook (POH). In 1975 the format and content of the
POH was standardized to make it easier for pilots to use and to allow for easier transi-
tions between different makes and models of airplanes. A few years later, the FAA
required all airplanes built after March !,Ig7g, to be equipped with an FAA approved

GENERAL- Presentsbasic informationsuch

Figure [Link] FAA approvedairplaneflight as loading,handling,and preflightof the
manualcan containas many as ten sectionsas [Link] includesdefinitions,
well as an optionalalphabeticalindex. abbreviations, symbology,and terminology
explanations.
LIMITATIONS- Includesoperating
limitations,
instrumentmarkings,color
coding,and basic placardsnecessaryfor
P i l o t ' sO p e r a t i n gH a n d b o o k the safe operationof the airplane.

and EMERGENCYPROCEDURES - Provides

F A A A p p r o v e dA i r p l a n e F l i g h t M a n u a l checklistsfollowedby amplified
proceduresfor copingwith varioustypes
of emergenciesor criticalsituations.
Relatedrecommendedairspeedsare also
[Link] the manufacturer's option,a
sectionon abnormalproceduresmay be
includedto describerecommendations for
handlingequipmentmalfunctions or other
abnormalitiesthat are not of an emergency
nature.
NORMAL PROCEDURES- Inctudeschecktists
followedby amplifiedproceduresfor
A I R C R A F TM A K E @
m [Link]
T H I S D O C U M E N TM U S T = recommendedairspeedsare also provided.
B EC A R R I E DI NT H EA I R - z

PLANE AT ALL TIMES, PERFORMANCE- Givesperformance

Model informationappropriateto the airplane,
AND BE KEPTIN REACH
O F T H E P I L O TD U R I N G plus optionalinformationpresentedin the
ALL FLIGHTOPERATIONS. most likelyorderfor use in flight.
SerialNo. U)
m
-l WEIGHTAND BALANCE- lnctudesweighing
R e g i s t r a t i oN
n o. procedures,weightand balancerecords,
z
computationinstructions,
and the
T HI SHA N D BOOK IN C L U D ETSH EMA T ER IA L equipmentlist.
RE Q UI R EDT O B E F U R N ISH EDT OT H EP I LOTB Y FA R
PART23 ANDCONSTITUTES THE FAAAPPROVED AIRPLANEAND SYSTEMSDESCRIPTION -
A I RP LA N E
F L IGH TM AN U A L . Describesthe airplaneand its systemsin a
formatconsideredby the manufacturerto
be most informative.

HANDLING,SERVICE,AND MAINTENANCE -
Includesinformationon airplaneinspection
periods,preventativemaintenancethat can
be performedby the pilot,groundhandling
procedures,servicing,cleaning,and care
instructions.
SUPPLEMENTS- Containsinformation
necessaryto safely and efficientlyoperate
the airplane'svariousoptionalsystemsand
equipment.

SAFETYAND OPERATIONALTIPS - Inctudes

optionalinformationfrom the manufacturer
of a generalnatureaddressingsafety
2-1tr practicesand procedures.
AI eeLAN ES EiEtrTIEN A

airplane flight manual (AFM) which is specifically assigned to the individual airplane
and can be accessedby the pilot during all flight operations. To satisfy the regulatory
requirement, the POH for most of these aircraft is also designated as the AFM. [Figure 2-
191 Since the POH/AFM normally stays with the airplane and, therefore, is not usually
available for you to review for extended periods of time, many manufacturers also
publish a pilot's information manual (PIM). The PIM contains the same information as
the POH/AFM except for precise weight and balance data and optional equipment
specific to a particular airplane. Although the PIM is not updated, it is organized in the
same manner as the POH/AFM and provides a useful study tool.

SUMMARY ETTEtrKLIsT
/ Tlne fuselage houses the cabin, or cockpit, and serves as the attachment point for
the other major airplane components.

/ Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage and are
contoured to take maximum advantage of the lifting force created by the passing
airflow.

/ The empennage consists of the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer
which act to steady the airplane and maintain a straight path through the air.

/ Trim devices are used to help minimize your workload by aerodynamically help-
ing you move a control surface, or maintain the surface in a desired position.

/ Landing gear employing a rear-mounted wheel is called conventional landing gear.

/ When the third wheel is iocated on the nose, the design is referred to as tricycle gear.

/ Brake pressure may be applied equally or to varying degreesby pressing on the top
of each rudder pedal.

/ The engine works to turn the propeller, generateelectrical energy, create a vacuum
source for some flight instruments, and, in most single-engine airplanes, provide a
source of heat for the pilot and passengers.

/ The propeller translates the rotating force of the engine into a forward-acting force
called thrust that helps to move the airplane through the air.

/ Most of the pertinent information about a particular make and model of airplane,
including operating limits, can be found in the pilot's operating handbook (POH)
and FAA approved airplane flight manual (AFM).

KeY TgRMs
Fuselage Wings

Open Truss Monoplanes

StressedSkin Biplanes

Monocoque Ailerons

Semi-Monocoque Flaps 2-', 1

 tr HAPTE R 2 AIe.r:uqNg EiYSTEMS

Empennage Fixed Gear

Vertical Stabilizer Retractable Gear

Horizontal Stabilizer Oleo Strut

Rudder Disc Brakes

Elevator Differential Braking

Stabilator Powerplant

Trim Tab Engine

Anti-Servo Tab Firewall

Main Wheels Propeller

Conventional Landing Gear Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH)

Tailwheel FAA Approved Airplane Flight

Manual (AFM)
Nosewheel
Pilot's Information Manual (PIM)
Tricycle Gear

AUESTIEINEi
L. Identify the major components of the airplane depicted in the accompanying illus-
tration.

2-1z
AIRPLANES EiEtrTIEN

2 . What is the primary difference between monocoque and semi-monocoque con-

struction?

3 . When you move the control wheel to the left, wiII the left aileron move up or
down?

4. True/False. The rudder is located on the horizontal stabilizer.

5. What is the purpose of trim devices?

G. An airplane with a wheel mounted on the tail is equipped with what type of land-
ing gear?

7. In addition to providing power to turn the propeller, what other functions does the
engine in a typical training airplane perform?

Match the following publications with the most appropriate descriptor.

8. FAA Approved Airplane Flight A. This publication can serve as a use-

Manual (AFM) ful study tool even though it may not
contain information about optional
9 . Pilot's Information Manual (PIM) equipment.

1 0 . Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH) B . Federal regulations require that this

publication be carried in the aircraft
during all flight operations.

C . The format for this publication was

standardized in 1,975.

2-13,
 ffiiHffiT*ffitN
THffi FffiTs'sffiFfr.
FLmNIf,
ANM FfrffiLATH:M
ffiYffiwffih64ffi

As early as 1483, an aerial craft propelled by u screw-type device was conceived by

Leonardo da Vinci. However, without a practical means of sustained power to drive the
screw, the concept remained unachievable for centuries. It wasn't until 1860 that the first
practical piston engine was developed. Although adequate for some land-based func-
tions, further development was necessary before the engine could be used in airborne
applications. By 1903, the Wright brothers and their mechanic, Charles Taylor, were able
to refine previous designs and build a powerplant that was lightweight, yet powerful
enough to meet the requirements of sustained flight. Although woefully inefficient by
today's standards, it provided a starting point for continued development. The resulting
modern aircraft powerplant still maintains several similarities with its predecessor,
including the requirement for precise interaction of the engine, propeller, and other
related systems.

HrrEitNrs
Engines in widespread use today can be divided into two categories- reciprocating and
turbine. Most large passengercarrying airplanes use a form of the turbine engine, which
is relatively costly but extremely powerful. Since the large power output of the turbine
engine is not required in most general aviation training airplanes, a form of the more
economical, but still very reliable, reciprocating engine is used. [Figure 2-2Ol

RTEIPnInEATINtrI HNtriINT E pHFuATImN

Although engine design may differ slightly between manufacturers, the principles of rec-
iprocating engine operation are essentially the same. The basic process of converting the
chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy occurs within the cylinders of the recip-
rocating engine. Essentially, a fuel/air mixture within the cylinder is compressed by a
piston, then ignited. The ensuing combustion creates energy which is converted into
work and transferred through a crankshaft to the propeller. [Figurc 2-2'].1
TrrE PowERPLANT AND ReIe,reo SYsrevs EiEtrTIEN B

Figure [Link]
are attachedto a crankshaftby
[Link] crankshaft
and the connectingrodschange
the back-and-forthmotionof the
pistonsto rotary,or turning,
motionwhichdrivesthe pro-
peller.

2-15
 tr HAPTE R 2 ArRplaNe Eivsrevs

THE FTTUnI..EITrIE]KI [f PEFUATINtrI EYcIE

In almost all reciprocating airplane engines, the continuous energy-creating process is
referred to as the four-stroke operating cycle. The steps in this cycle are: the intake of
the fuel/air mixture, the compression by the piston, the ignition and expansion of the
gases,and the venting of the burned gases.[Figure 2-2Zl

Figure 2-22. Most reciprocatingengines

use a four-strokeoperatingcycle.

INTAKE
@ :ru:::,t":'"t @;"*lmpressionisnearry @ ;r*nt
When the pistonmoves comprete, stroke
awayfrom the cylinder moves back toward the spark plugsfire and the compressed expelsthe burned
head on the intakestroke, the cylinderhead, mixtureis ignitedto beginthe power gasesfrom the
the intakevalveopens the intakevalve [Link] rapidlyexpandinggases from [Link]
and the tuel/airmixtureis closesand the the controlledburningof the fuel/air opened exhaust
drawninto the combustion fuel/airmixtureis mixturedrivethe piston,providingthe valve.
chamber. compressed. power that rotatesthe crankshaft.

Even when the engine is operated at a fairly slow speed, the four-stroke cycle takes place
several hundred times each minute. In a four-cylinder engine, each cylinder operates on
a different stroke. Continuous rotation of the crankshaft is maintained by the precise
timing of the power strokes in each cylinder. Continuous operation of the engine as a
whole is dependent on the simultaneous function of ancillary systems including the
induction, ignition, fuel, oil, cooling, and exhaust systems.

2-16
Trre [Link] AND Reuaneo Evsrevs EiEtrTIEN B

INTAKE

ixiiirini"ffi

ItrtputrTrtf N SvsrEMsi
The purpose of the induction system is to bring outside air into the engine, mix it with
fuel in the proper proportion, and deliver it to the cylinders where combustion occurs.
Your control over the amount of fueI and air that is introduced into the engine cylinders
is maintained by two controls in the cockpit - the throttle and the mixture. The
throttle controls engine speed by regulating the amount of fuel and air mixture that flows
into the cylinders, while the mixture controls the fuel/air ratio. [Figure 2-231

Tachometer ManifoldPressure Tachometer

Figure 2-23. Many trainingair-

planesare equippedwith a
fixed-pitchpropeller.A typical
powerplantcontrolarrange-
ment for these type of aircraft Throttle Mixture Throttle PropellerControl Mixture
is shownon the [Link]
AIRPLANESWITH A AIRPLANESWITH A
speed is controlledby the throt-
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER CoNSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER -/
tle and displayedon a
tachometerin revolutionsper
minute(r.p.m.).Other airplanesmay use a moreefficientconstant-speed propellerthat is adjustablefrom
the [Link] shown on the right,this type of airplaneemploysthree [Link]
the propellercontrolsetsthe [Link] reflectedon a manifold
[Link] gaugedisplaysthe pressureof the fuel/airmixtureinsidethe intakemanifoldin
inchesof mercury([Link].).Bothtypesof systemshavea mixturecontrolwhichis usedto maintainthe
properblendof fuel and air. z-'l7
 tr HAPTE R 2 ATeeLANE Svsrevs

Figure 2-24. Engineintakeair normallyentersan

intakeport throughan air filter.

Outside air enters the induction system through an

intake port at the front of the engine compartment.
This port normally contains an air filter that
inhibits the entry of dust and other foreign objects.
[Figure 2-24] Since the filter may occasionally
become clogged, an alternate source of air must be
available. Usually, the alternate air comes from
inside the engine cowling where it bypasses a
clogged air filter. Some alternate air sources func-
tion automatically, while others operate manually.

TnE [Link]
Once the air enters the induction system, it
moves through a system of ducts and r;
is introduced into the carburetor, The ,it ,-1: oo"1*insprinciple,:j ftoat-tylecarbu-
carburetor mixes the incoming air with fuel .ii retors is based on the differencein pres-
and delivers it to the combustion chamber. ,r sure at the venturithroatand the air inlet.
A float-type carburetor system is used on '''l
many light aircraft. When the air enters the
carburetor it passesthrough a venturi. This increasesits velocity and decreasesits pres-
sure. Fuel enters the carburetor from a float chamber where it is maintained at a nlarly
constant level by a float device. The float chamber is vented to the
outside so that pressure inside remains equal to the atmospheric pressure, even during
climbs and descents. Since the dischargenozzle is located in u.r ur"u of low pressure
created by the venturi, the fuel is forced through the disch arge nozzle by the higher
atmospheric pressure in the float chamber. [Figure Z-ZSI

FUEUAIRMIXTURE AIR BLEED

The blendof fuel and air is routed The air bleedallowsair to be mixedwith fuel being
to the combustionchambersto be drawnout of the dischargenozzleto decrease
burned. fuel densityand promotefuel vaporization.
THROTTLEVALVE
FLOATCHAMBER
The flow of the tuellai mixtureis
Fuel levelis maintained
controlledby the [Link]
by a float-typedevice.
throttlevalveis adjustedfrom the
cockpitby the throttle. FUEL INLET
Fuel is receivedinto
the carburetorthrough
DISCHARGENOZZLE the fuel inlet.
Fuel is forcedthroughthe
dischargenozzleinto the venturi
by greateratmospheric
pressurein the floatchamber.

VENTURI
The shape of the venturicreates
an area of low pressure.

AIR INLET
Air entersthe carburetor
throughthe air inlet. MIXTURENEEDLE
The mixtureneedlecontrolsfuel to
the [Link]
positioncan be adjustedusingthe
mixturecontrol.
Figure 2'[Link] a float-typecarburetor,fuel is drawnfrom the float chamber
z-.t s pasta mixtureneedleand intothe venturiwhereit mixeswith the incomingair.
 Carburetors are calibrated at sea level, and
the correct fuel-to-air mixture ratio is estab-
When you lean the mixture,you decreasethe
Iished at that altitude with the mixture con-
fuel flow to compensatefor decreasedair den-
trol set in the FULL RICH position.
[Link] mixturemay eliminateengine
However, as altitude increases, the density
roughnessduring runupat high-elevationairports.
of air entering the carburetor decreases
while the density of the fuel remains the
same. This creates a progressively richer
mixture which can result in engine roughness. The roughness normally is due to spark
plug fouling from excessivecarbon buildup on the plugs. This occurs becausethe exces-
sively rich mixture lowers the temperature inside the cylinder, inhibiting complete
combustion of the fuel. This condition may occur during the pretakeoff runup at high-
elevation airports and during climbs or cruise flight at high altitudes. To maintain the
correct fuel/air mixture, you must lean the mixture using the mixture control.

During a descent from high altitude, you must remember to enrich the mixture or it may
become too lean. An overly lean mixture may result in high engine temperatures which
can cause excessive engine wear or even failure over a period of time. The best way to
maintain the proper mixture is to monitor the
engine temperature and enrichen the mixture
as needed. Since the process of adjusting the lf you do not adjustthe mixturecontroldur-
mixture can vary from one airplane to another, ing descentsfrom high to low altitudes,the
it's important that you refer to the pilot's oper- fuel/airmixturewill be too lean.
ating handbook (POH) to determine the spe-
cific procedures for your airplane.

One disadvantageof the float-type carburetor is its icing tendency. Carburetor ice occurs
due to the effect of fuel vaporization and decreasing air pressure in the venturi which
causes a sharp temperature drop in the carburetor. If water vapor in the air condenses
when the carburetor temperature is at or below freezing, ice may form on internal
surfaces of the carburetor, including the throttle valve. [Figure 2-26]

tcE FUEUAIRMIXTURE
lf conditionswarrant,ice The vaporizationof the fuel
willgenerallyform in the contributesto a temoerature
vicinityof the throttlevalve. decreasein the carburetor.

VENTURI
The reducedair pressureat
the venturithroatcreates
a temperaturedecrease.

Figure [Link] INTAKEAIR

reducesthe sizeof the air passage Carburetorice is most likelyto
to the [Link] restrictsthe flow occurwhen intakeair
of the fuellairmixtureand reduces temperature is below21'C
[Link] enoughice buildsup, the (70"F)and the relativehumidity
enginecan ceaseto operate. is above B0%. 2-19
 tr HAPTE R 2 ArpelaNe Eivsrsvs

Carburetor ice is more likely to occur when temperatures are below 21."C(20.F) and rel-
ative humidity is above 80%. However, due to the sudden cooling that takes place in the
carburetor, icing can occur even with temperatures as high as 3B"C (100.F) ind humid-
ity as low as 5O%. [Figure 2-ZTl

90%

.= Figure [Link] can

P9 80"/" form when the temperatureand
E
humidityare in the ranges
r
o [Link],since not all
.E 70o/o
carburetorsare designedexactly
6
tr the same, carburetorice is pos-
60% sibleunderconditionsnot
depictedon this chart.

Your first indication of carburetor icing in

an airplane with a fixed-pitch propeller
will be a decrease in engine r.p.m., fol-
Iowed by engine roughness and possible
fuel starvation. In an airplane with a con-
stant-speed propeller, the power changes

Althoughcarburetoricecanoccurduring"";;"n:-,:"""ffrff,1,'11flil#ffi
iiliil;'"',:',|,
when you are using reduced power, such as in a [Link] the right conditions, car-
buretor ice could build unnoticed until you try to add power. To combat the effects of
carburetor ice, engines with float-type carburetors employ a carburetor heat system
which is designed to eliminate ice by routing air across a heat source before it enters the
carburetor. [Figure 2-281

The use of carburetor heat causesa slight decreasein

CARBURETORHEAT ON
engine power, because the heated air is less dense
than the outside air that had been entering the
engine. This enriches the mixture. When ice is pre-
sent in an airplane with a fixed-pitch propeller and
you use carburetor heat, there is a slight decrease in
ToCarburetor-
a
a
,''&*{ \
[Link]., followed by a gradual increase in r.p.m. as the a Carburetor Heat Control
ice melts. If ice is not present, the r.p.m. will (ln Cockpit)
decrease slightly, then remain constant. Remember, Air ./
Intake
in an airplane with a constant-speed propeller
these power changes are reflected by manifold
pressure.

Figure [Link] turn the carburetor

heat ON, a valvecuts off air flow from the
normalair intakeand allowsheatedair from
an alternatesourceto enter the carburetor.
 PoweePLANT AND ReuarEo SYsrevs SEtrTIEN B

Generally, 1lou should use full carburetor

heat whenever you reduce engine r.p.m.
below the normal operating range for your
airplane, or when you suspect the pres-
ence of carburetor ice. Normally, you do
not use carburetor heat continuously when
full power is required, such as during a
takeoff, due to the decreasein engine out-
put caused by the increased operating tem-
perature of the engine. Be sure to check the
POH for specific recommendations.

FuEu lru.'rgnTrrsN
One way to eliminate the threat of carbure-
tor ice is to remove the carburetor alto-
gether. Recently, some manufacturers have done so by equipping new aircraft with fuel
injection systems. These engines are more precise in metering fuel and distributing the
fuel/air mixture than engines equipped with a float-type carburetor. Fuel injection offers
lower fuel consumption, increased horsepower, lower operating temperatures, and
longer engine life. From a safety standpoint, the most significant advantage is the rela-
tive freedom from the formation of induction icing.

A fuel injected engine uses a system that incorporates four basic components - a fuel
pump, fuel control unit, fuel manifold valve, and fueI discharge nozzles. The fuel pump
moves fuel from the tank to the fuel control unit which essentially replaces the carbure-
tor. The fuel control unit meters fuel based upon the mixture control setting and sends it
to the fuel manifold valve at the rate set by the throttle. Upon reaching the fuel manifold
valve, the fuel is distributed to individual fuel
discharge nozzles. The discharge rtozzles,
which are located in each cylinder head, intro-
duce air into the fuel and inject the mixture
into each intake port where it is drawn into the
cylinders for combustion upon opening of each
intake valve. [Figure 2-2gl

Figure 2-29. Fuel injectionsystemsintroducethe fuel/airmixture

directlyinto the intakeport of each [Link] many
ways superiorto enginesequippedwith a floattype carburetor,
fuel injectedengineshave some disadvantages,including
FUEL MANIFOLDVALVET
increasedsensitivityto fuel contaminantsand more complex
This valvedistributesfuel \
startingprocedures,particularlywhen the engineis hot.
evenlyto all cylindersand \
providesa fuel shutoffwhen \
the mixtureis put in the [Link] BOOSTPUMP
idle-cutoffposition. Providesfuel under pressureto
-a? the fuel controlunit after engine
FUEL DISCHARGENOZZLE// [Link]
Mixesair with the fuel received with enginespeed.
from the manifoldvalve and
injectsit into the cylinderintake
[Link] is one nozzle per
cylinder.

FUELTANK

ELECTRICBOOSTPUMP
-/ Providesfuel pressureto the
FUEL CONTROL UNIT/ fuel controlunitfor enginestarting.
Metersfuelto the engine
basedupon throttleposition. z-21
 tr HAPTE R 2 ATRpLANE Sivsrevs

Ei ur:eRtrHAREII Nci AN D TuRgcrtrHARtriI Ntri

When you operate a reciprocating engine at high altitudes, efficiency of the engine dimin-
ishes as a result of lower air density, even though the volume of airflow into the engine
remains the same. This is a characteristic of any normally aspirated engine, where the
fuel/air mixture is not [Link] intake air could be compressed,more fuel could be
added to the mixture, producing an increase in overall engine power output.

Sea-level performance can be obtained even at high altitudes using either a supercharg-
ing or a turbocharging system. A supercharger compresses the incoming air using a
pump driven by the engine. Although effective, some engine power must be used to
drive the supercharger which decreasesthe net power increase. On the other hand, a
turbocharger is more efficient because it pressurizes the air using a mechanism driven
by engine exhaust gases,which would otherwise be vented overboard. [Figure 2-30]
Both supercharged and turbocharged engines usually are fuel injected and have tight
operating parameters which require that you make careful mixture adjustments and
monitor engine operation closely.

TURBOCHARGER THROfiLE BODY INTAKEMANIFOLD

The turbochargerincorporates Regulatesairflow Pressurizedair from the
a turbine,whichis drivenby to the engine. turbochargeris suppliedto the
exhaustgases,and a cylinders.
compressorthat pressurizes
the incomingair.

EXHAUSTMANIFOLD
Exhaustgas is ductedthrough
the exhaustmanifoldand is
usedto run the turbinewhich
drivesthe compressor.

EXHAUSTGAS WASTE GATE AIR INTAKE

DISCHARGE Controlsthe amountof exhaust Ram air is ductedto the
passingthroughthe turbine. turbochargerwhere it is
Wastegate positionis compressed.
controlledby engineoil
pressure.

Figure [Link] typicalgeneralaviationturbochargingsystemcan increasethe poweroutput

of an [Link] some airplanes,the turbochargersuppliesair for cabinpressurization
in addi-
tion to compressedair for the engineinductionsystem.

z-22
TTTe PEwERPLANT AND ReI,qTeo SYSTEMS SEtrTIEN E|

z- 23
tr HAPTER Z [Link].e,rug SysrEMS

Trqr lrsNtrtr3N SysrEM

The ignition system provides the spark that ignites the fuel/air mixture in the cylinders.
It is made up of magnetos, spark plugs, interconnecting wires, and the ignition switch.
[Figure 2-31,]

Lower
Magneto
Wires
Upper
Magneto
Wires

Figure 2'31. Each magnetois connectedto one of the two spark plugs in each cylinder.

A magneto is a self-contained, engine-driven unit that supplies electrical current to the

spark plugs. It uses a permanent magnet to generate an electrical current completely
independent of the aircraft's electrical system. The magneto generatessufficiently high
voltage to jump a spark acrossthe spark plug gap in each cylinder. The system begins to
fire when you engage the starter and the crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to oper-
ate whenever the crankshaft is rotating.

Most airplanes incorporate a dual ignition sys-

tem with two individual magnetos, separate
The dual ignitionsystemon an airplane
sets of wires, spark plugs, and other compo-
engrneprovroestmprovedengtne nents to enhance safety and increase reliability
performance.
of the ignition system. Each magneto operates
independently to fire one of the two spark
plugs in each cylinder. The firing of two spark
plugs improves combustion of the fuel/air mixture and results in a slightly higher power
output. If one of the magnetos fails, the other is unaffected. The engine will continue to
operate normally, although you can expect a slight decreasein engine power. The same
is true if one of the two spark plugs in a cylinder fails.
Trre Powerrr:LANT A,ND Relanep SYsrevs EiEtrTIEN B

You control the operation of the magnetos from the cockpit with the ignition switch,
which is normally labeled: OFF, RIGHT, LEFT, BOTH, and START. When you select the
LEFT or RIGHT position, only the associated magneto is activated. When you select
BOTH, the system operates on both magnetos. [Figure 2-32]

Figure [Link] magnetosare con-

trolledby the ignitionswitchin the
cockpit.

You can identify a malfunctioning ignition system during the pretakeoff check by observ-
ing the decreasein r.p.m. that occurs when you first move the ignition switch from BOTH
to RIGHT, and then from BOTH to LEFT. A small decreasein engine r.p.m. is normal dur-
ing this check, however, you should consult your POH for the permissible [Link]
excessive decrease could signal the presence of fouled plugs, broken or shorted wires
between the magneto and the plugs, or improperly timed firing of the plugs.

Following engine shutdown, be certain that you turn the ignition switch to the OFF posi-
tion. Even with the battery and master switches OFF, the engine can fire and turn over if
you leave the ignition switch ON and the propeller is moved because the magneto
requires no outside source of electrical power. The potential for serious injury in this
situation is obvious.

Loose or broken wires in the ignition system also can cause problems. For example, if the
ignition switch is OFF, the magneto may continue to fire if the ignition switch ground
wire is disconnected. If this occurs, the only way to stop the engine is to move the mix-
ture lever to the idle cutoff position, then have the system checked by a qualified
mechanic.

ASNT]RMAL E T T M e I U S T I T fN
During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture burns in a very controlled and pre-
dictable manner. Although the process occurs in a fraction of a second, the mixture actu-
ally begins to burn at the point where it is ignited by the spark plugs, then burns away
from the plugs until it's all consumed. This type of combustion causesa smooth buildup
of temperature and pressure and ensures that the expanding gases deliver the maximum
force to the piston at exactly the right time in the power stroke. Detonation, on the other
hand, is an uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel/air mixture within the cylinder's
combustion chamber. It causes excessive tem-
peratures and pressures which, if not cor-
rected, can quickly lead to failure of the
piston, cylinder, or valves. In less severe
cases, detonation causes engine overheating,
roughness, or loss of power.
tr HAPTE R Z AIeeLANE SYSTEMS

Detonation can happen anytime you allow the engine to overheat or if you use a lower
than recommended fuel grade. The potential for engine overheating is greatestunder the
following conditions: takeoff with an engine that is very near the maximum allowable
temperature, operation at high r.p.m. and low airspeed, and extended operations above
7Soh power with an extremely lean mix-
ture. If detonation is suspected on :,.,,
'i
climbout, you can help cool the engine by Detonationmay resultif you allowthe
retarding the throttle and by climbing at a ,,.i. engineto overheator if you use an
slower rate. impropergradeof fuel. lf you suspectthe
engineis detonatingon climbout,you can lowerthe
Detonation can often lead to another prob- noseto increase
airspeedandthecoolingairflow
]em,[Link].
implies, preignition occurs when the
fuel/air mixture is ignited in advance of the
normal timed ignition. Preignition is caused by a residual hot spot in the cylinder such
as a small carbon deposit on a spark plug, a cracked ceramic spark plug insulator, or
almost any damage around the combustion chamber. [Figure Z-gBl

Figure 2'33. Preignitionmay be caused by an area roughenedand heatedby detonation.

Preignition and detonation may occur simultaneously. Since both are likely to cause
engine roughness and high engine temperatures, you may find it difficult to distinguish
between the two. If problems occur, you
should attempt to lower cylinder temperature
by retarding the throttle, enriching the fuel
mixture, and/or lowering the nose attitude. :i;JT "'
"'ffjff"TT:H1,"ffi
,T::"
...:i::i]'i.]]]ii.]:j]l:.]':l':ill'1;1.:.1:11:.:.'j1;..;l:.1:i] .'::l]l]i:.ii]]..'].:] 11

FUEL SysTEMsi
Fuel systems may be quite complex and include a number of individual components
such as tanks, Iines, vents, valves, drains, and [Link] are two general types of fuel
systems found in light airplanes - those that require a fuel pump and those that operate
on gravity feed. Regardlessof the system on the airplane you use for training, you will
eventually encounter both systems. [Figure 2-84]
Trre [Link] AND RelanEo Eivsrevs EiEtrTIEN B

ElectricPump

Selector
Valve

GRAVITY-FEED
SYS'fEM FUEL-PUMPSYSTEM

Figure [Link]{eedand fuel-pumpsystemsare similar,exceptthe gravitysystem normallydoes not include

engine-drivenor electricboost pumps and fuel pressuregauges.

A fuel-pump system is usually found in low-wing airplanes, where the fuel tanks may be
Iocated below the engine. It is also used in most high-performance airplanes with fuel-
injected engines. In this type of system an engine-driven pump provides fuel under pres-
sure from the fuel tanks to the engine. Because
the engine-driven pump operates only when
the engine is running, an electric boost pump,
which is controlled by a switch in the cockpit,
provides fuei under pressure for engine start-
ing and as a backup, should the engine-driven
pump malfunction.

The fuel pump system usually includes a fuel pressure gauge which can be helpful in
detecting fuel pump malfunctions. If fuel pressure drops below the normal operating
range, turning on the fuel boost pump wiII ensure a steady flow of fuel to the engine. Any
interruption of fuel flow in fuel pump system can cause problems. In a fuel pump
equipped airplane, running a tank completely dry may allow air to enter the fuel system
and cause a condition known as vapor lock. When this situation develops, it may be dif-
ficult, or impossible, to restart the e4gine.

In a gravity-feed system, fuel flows by gravity

from the fueI tanks to the engine. It works well in
high-wing airplanes where the difference in
height between the wing-mounted fueI tanks and
the engine allows the fuel to flow under sufficient
pressure to meet the requirements of the engine.
Most gravity-feed, and some fuel-pump systems
incorporate a manually operated pump called a
primer. It is used to pump fuel directly into the
intake system prior to engine start. The primer is
useful in cold weather when fuel in the carburetor
is difficult to vaporize. [Figure 2-35]
[Link]
canbe usedto helpstarta coldengine. 2-27
 tr HAPTE R 2 AIRPLANE Svsrevs

FuEu EivgrEM EcrMr:crNTNTsi

The fuel tanks, which are usually located in the wings, contain a vent which allows air
pressure inside the tank to remain the same as that outside the tank. This prevents the
formation of a vacuum which would restrict fuel from flowing out of the tank. The vents
may be located in the filler caps, or the
tank may be vented through a small tube
extending through the wing surface. The
tanks also contain an overflow draln that
prevents the rupture of the tank due to fuel
expansion. The overflow drain may be
combined with the fuel tank vent, or it
may have a separate opening. On hot days,
it is not unusual to see a small amount of
fuel coming from the overflow drain.
[Figure 2-36]

Figure [Link] this Cessna 172, the left tank is

ventedthrougha tube (shown)while the right
tank is ventedthroughthe fillercap.

The fuel quantity gauges are located on the instrument panel, where they are usually
grouped with engine monitoring gauges. The amount of fuel is measured by a sensing
unit in each fuel tank and is usually displayed on the gauge in gallons. Some newer
gauges,however, may show the tank capacity in both gallons and pounds. [Figure 2-37]

[Link] notdependsolelyon
the accuracyof yourfuelquantity
[Link]
levelin eachtankduringthepreflight
inspectionandthencompareit withthe
corresponding fuelquantity
indication.

The fuel selector valve allows you to select fuel from various tanks. A common type of
selector valve contains four positions: LEFT, RIGHT, BOTH, and OFF. Selecting the LEFT
or RIGHT position allows fuel to feed only from that tank, while selecting the BOTH
position feeds fueI from both tanks. Normally, this type of selector is placed in the BOTH
position. The LEFT or RIGHT position may be used to balance the amount of fuel
remaining in each wing tank. [Figure 2-38]

[Link] nearthefuelselectormay
showthetankcapacityin gallonsof usablefuel.
Therealsomaybe limitations on singletankoper-
youwill
ations,suchas levelflightonly,Usually,
findthatthe BOTHpositionis required fortakeoffs
andlandings or maneuvering,

2-zEl,
Trre PtlwenpLANT AND Relanso Svsrevs EiEtrTII]N El

Another common type of fuel selector switch has three positions: LEFT, RIGHT, and
OFF. With this type of system, 1lou must monitor fuel consumption closely to ensure that
you don't run a tank completely out of fueI or create an excessively unbalanced fuel load
between tanks. [Figure 2-39]

[Link]
demandsthatyoupaycloseattention to fueltank
quantities.

After the fuel selector valve, the fuel passes through a

strainer before it enters the carburetor. The fuel strainer
removes moisture and other sediments that might be in the
system. Since these contaminants are heavier than aviation
fuel, they settle in a sump at the
bottom of the strainer assembly.
It is generally recommended
that you drain the fuel strainer
before each flight. If the system
design will allow it, you should
also check the fuel visually to
ensure that no moisture is pre-
sent. [Figure 2-4Ol

If moisture is present in the

sump, it probably means there
is more water in the fuel tanks,
and you should continue to
drain them until there is no
evidence of contamination. If
you are in doubt, have the
[Link]
system inspected by a qualified
checktheairplane's
fuel
forcontaminants
during mechanic. In any event, never
yourpreflight
inspection" take off until you are certain
Thesampleon the right that all moisture has been
[Link] is heavierthan fuel, it, and removed from the engine fuel system.
other contaminants,will sink to the bottomof the tester. Moisture is hazardous because in cold
weather it can freeze and block fuel
lines. In warm weather, it can flow into
the carburetor and stop the engine. To
help prevent moisture buildup it is a
good practice to ensure that an air-
plane's tanks are refueled following the
last flight of the day since moisture can
condense in partially filled fuel tanks.
2-29
 ATRpLANE Svsrevs

REFUELINGi
The fuel tanks are replenished with fuel through a filler cap on top of the wing using a
fueI nozzle and hose. There may be occasions when you will refuel your airplane your-
self. While airplane fuel is a hazardous substance,refueling can be safely accomplished
if you follow a few simple procedures.

Figure 2-41.A groundwire should be attachedto the The major refueling hazard is the possible
airplaneduringall refuelingoperations. combustion of the fuel by a spark that causes
fumes to ignite. The most probable cause of a
spark is foom static electricity that discharges
between refueling equipment and the air-
plane. The possibility of sparking can be
greatly reduced if you make sure that a
ground wire from the fuel truck is attached to
the airplane before the fuel cap is removed
from the tank. The airplane should be
grounded throughout the refueling procedure
and the fuel truck should be grounded to the
airport surface. [Figure 2-41] While refueling,
be especially careful not to allow the fuel
nozzle spout to project very far into the filler
opening, since it can damage the tank. Once
you finish, make sure you securely replace
all fuel caps.

In addition to using the proper refueling technique, you must also ensure that you are
using the proper grade of fuel. Airplane engines are designed to operate with a fuel that
meets certain specifications. The recommended fuel grade and authofized substitutes for
your airplane are listed in the POH. Fuel
grades are identified according to octane,
or performance number, and all fuel of the
same grade is dyed a standard color to
assist in identification. [Figure 2-421Using
an incorrect grade may seriously affect
engine performance and may result in
engine damage or failure.

Figure [Link] fuel and placementof decalsnearfuel tank fillercaps helpsensurethat you use the
propergradeof fuel.
 tr HAPTE R Z AtrreLANE Svsrevs

[f ru SrrsrgMs
The engine oil system performs several
important functions including lubrication
of the engine's moving parts and cooling of
the engine by reducing friction and remov-
ing some of the heat from the cylinders.
Additionally, engine oil improves engine
efficiency by providing a seal between the
cylinder walls and pistons. During circulation, engine oil also carries away contaminants
which €re removed as the oil passesthrough a filter. Reciprocating engines generally use
either a wet-sump or dry-sump oil system. In a dry-sump system, the oil is contained in a
separate tank and circulated
TOP VIEW through the engine by pumps.
SumpOil and ReturnOil @ Many light airplanes use a wet-
From ReliefValve sump system in which all of the
PressureOil From Oil Pump @ oil is carried in a sump which is
an integral putt of the engine. It is
OilCooler
and Filter I simple, reliable, and
Low Pressure suitable for most small
Oil Screen Oil Sump reciprocating engines.
Oil Pump [Figure 2-431

High Pressure
OilScreen

Oil FillerCap
and Dipstick

Figure 2-43,The heart of a wet-sumpsystemis the oil pump,which draws oil from the sump and routesit to
the engine,Afterthe oil passesthroughthe engine,it returnsto the [Link] some airplanes,additionallubrica-
tion is suppliedby the rotatingcrankshaft,whichsplashesoil onto portionsof the engine.

The oil filler cap and dipstick for measuring the oil quan-
tity are accessible through a panel in the engine cowling.
You should check the oil quantity before each flight. See
your pilot's operating handbook or placards near the access
panel for the minimum operating quantity, as weII as the
recommended oil type and weight for your airplane.
[Figure 2-44]

Figure [Link] levelshouldbe checkedduringyour pre-

Notethe placardon the insideof the access
flightinspection.
panel.
THe [Link] AND Relaneo Eivsrsvs SEtrTlEN Et ,

After engine start, you should use the oil pressure and oil temperature gaugesto monitor
the system. The oil pressure gauge provides a direct indication of the oil system opera-
tion. A below-normal pressure may mean that the oil pump is not putting out enough
pressure to circulate oil throughout the engine, while an above-normal pressure may
indicate a clogged oil line. You should consider any abnormal indication to mean that
vital engine parts are not receiving the necessary lubrication. Under these circum-
stances, your best course of action is to follow the appropriate instructions in your POH.
Most manufacturers recommend that you shut down the engine if the oil pressure does
not begin to rise within 30 seconds after an engine start in warm weather, or 60 seconds
in cold conditions. [Figure 2-451

Figure [Link] oil pressuregauge measuresthe pres-

sure in poundsper squareinch (p.s.i.)of the oil suppliedto
the [Link] normaloperating
range,while red indicatesthe minimumand maximum
pressures.

The oil temperature gauge is usually located

near the oil pressure gauge. This allows you to
check both at the same time. Unlike oil pres-
sure, changes in oil temperature occur more
slowly. This is particularly noticeable after
starting a cold engine, when it may take several
minutes or longer for the gauge to show any
increase in oil temperature. [Figurc 2-46]

Figure [Link] oil temperaturegauge measuresthe

temperatureof oil as it entersthe [Link],the
green area showsthe normaloperatingrangeand the red
line indicatesthe maximumallowabletemperature.

You should check the oil temperature periodi-

cally to see if it remains within the normal
operating range. This is particularly important
when you are using a high power setting, since
this tends to increase oil temperatures.
Abnormally high indications may also indicate
a plugged oil line, a low oil quantity, or a defec-
tive temperature gauge.

2-33
 tr HAPTE R Z [Link] Svsrevs

ESELINEI SvsrEMs
The combustion process that takes place within the engine's cylinders produces intense
heat. Excessively high engine temperatures can result in a loss of power, high oil con-
sumption, and engine [Link] the engine oil system is essential to internal cool-
ing of the engine, additional cooling is required to maintain normal temperatures. Much
of the remaining heat is dissipated in the exhaust gasesand through outside air flowing
around the engine. [Figure 2-471

Figure [Link] usuallyentersthe enginecompartment

throughan inletbehindthe [Link] to the
hottestpartsof the engine,primarilythe cylinders,which have
fins that increasethe area exposedto the airflow.

Air cooling becomes less effective during

takeoffs, go-arounds, or any other flight
Excessiveenginetemperaturescan result
maneuver that combines low airspeed with
in loss of power,high oil consumption,and
high power. Conversely, during high-speed
possibleenginedamage.
descents, the cooling effect of the airflow
may be excessive. In order to give you more
control over engine cooling, some airplanes
are equipped with cowl flaps. Opening the cowl flaps creates a larger path for air to
escapefrom the engine compartment, increasing the cooling airflow. [Figure 2-481

Figure [Link],whichare normallyplaced

on the undersideof the enginecowling,are likelyto
be installedon aircraftwith high-performance
enginesthat generatelargeamountsof [Link]
properuse of cowl flaps can reduceextremetem-
peraturefluctuationsand prolongenginelife.

z-34
Tue PoweRpLANT AND Reuanep Svsrevs SEtrTIEN E|

Airplanes equipped with cowl flaps may have a cylinder head temperature gauge that
provides a direct temperature reading from one of the cylinders. [Figure 2-a9] By
monitoring the cylinder head temperature,
you can regulate the flow of cooling air by
adjusting the position of the cowl flaps Enginetemperaturemay be reducedby
using a control in the cockpit. Other meth- enriChingthe mixture,reducingthe rate of
ods for reducing engine temperatures climb,increasingairspeed,or reducingpower.
include enriching the mixture, reducing the
rate of climb, increasing airspeed and,
when conditions permit, decreasing the
power setting,
lf oil and cylinderhead temperaturesare
above normal,you may be usingtoo much
powerwith an overlylean mixture.

Figure 2-49. Like the other enginegauges,the normal rangefor the

cylinderhead temperaturegauge is markedin [Link]
comparethe readingsfrom the cylinderhead temperatureand oil
temperaturegauges.A disparitybetweenthe two may indicatea
malfunctionin one of the [Link] and cylinderhead temperatures
abovethe normaloperatingrangemay indicatethat you are usingtoo
much powerwith the mixtureset too lean.

TrrE [Link] SvsrEM

In many airplanes, the exhaust system is used not only to vent burned gasesoverboard,
but also to provide heat for the cabin and for defrosting the windscreen. A typical
exhaust system for a light airplane directs exhaust out below the engine
compartment through a muffler and tailpipe. As the hot exhaust gases
heat the muffler, metal shrouds around the muffler capture
the heat and duct it to the cabin. The amount of heated
air entering the cabin can be controlled by a knob in
the cockpit. [Figure 2-5O]

Defroster

./
Cabin
Heat
Control

Figure 2-54. Heat is

transferredto incoming
air tram the hot engine
exhaustgases via the
mufflerand [Link]
\ Air Inlet
heatedair is then
ductedto the cockpitfor
Mufflerand Shroud cabinheatingand wind-
screendefrosting.
./
To RearCabin
2-35
tr HAPTE R Z AreelaNe Eivsrevs

PTanPTLLHntg
Although the engine produces the power, the propeller provides the thrust to propel
the airplane through the air. The propeller consists of a central hub with two or more
blades attached. Each blade is an airfoil that acts like a rotating wing, producing
thrust. [Figure 2-51]

Figure [Link] cross

sectionsof this propellerblade
illustratethe changingairfoilshapes
alongthe lengthof the propellerblade.
Due to the speed differentialcausedwhen the pro-
$ww
pellerrotates,low-speedairfoilsare used nearthe hub and
high-speedairfoilsare used nearthe tip.

The amount of thrust produced by each section of the propeller is not only a function of
its shape, but is also dependent upon its rotational speed and position relative to the
oncoming air. Since this varies along the propeller blade span, each small section of the
propeller blade is set at a different angle to the plane
of rotation. The gradual decrease in blade angle
resulting from this gives the propeller blade its
twisted [Link] twist allows the propeller
to provide more nearly uniform thrust throughout
most of the length of the blade. [Figure 2-52]

Figure [Link] twist of a propellerbladecan be most readilyseen by

lookingdownthe bladefrom the tip to the hub.
TrrE PoweRpLANT AND RelR,reo Svsrevs EiEtrTITf N E| J

If the angle of each section of a propeller were averaged,lou could determine an overall
blade angle. A propeller with a low blade angle, known as a climb propeller, provides
the best performance for takeoff and climb, while one with a high blade angle, known as
a cruise propeller, is more adapted to high speed cruise and high altitude flight.

Multi-BladedPropellers
As enginepoweris increased,greaterpropellerbladearea is
neededto efficientlyconvertthe powerto thrust. However,an
increasein propellersize comes at a [Link] the bladesof the propellerare
made broader,a reductionin overallefficiencymay [Link] blade
lengthcan be a viablesolution,but, at some point,increasesin length
becomelimitedby groundclearanceand bladetip [Link] speed
becomesan issuebecause,as tip speed approachesthe speedof sound,
drag increases,and [Link] alternativesolutioncan be to
increasethe numberof bladeswhich allowsenginepowerto be more
[Link] addition,the propellercan turn more slowlywhich helps
to reduce [Link] may notice that many higher-performancegeneral
aviationairplanesuse three-bladedpropellers.[FigureA]

The LockheedC-130 Herculesmilitarytransportshownin figureB uses

[Link] moderncommuterairplanesuse propellers
with five or six blades,

Anothermethodto increasebladecount is to employtwo propellersper

[Link] propellerscontra-rotate,
or turn in oppositedirections.
The four
engines TupolevTu-95Bear shown in figureC each driveeight-blade
:n,:n.
contra-rotatingpropellers.

FIxEFTFITffiH PmmFHLkHR
Light airplanes may have either a fixed-pitch
or a constant-speed propeller. With a fixed-
pitch propeller, blade angle is selected on
the basis of what is best for the primary func-
tion of the airplane, and cannot be changed
by the pilot. The only power control for a
fixed-pitch propeller is the throttle, and the
only power indicator is the tachometer.
[Figure 2-531

Figure 2-53.A fixed-pitchpropelleris connected

directlyto the engine'[Link]
rotatesthe crankshaftas well as the propeller,
and the propellerconvertsthe rotarypowerinto
thrust. z- 37
 G HAPTE R Z Arpele,Ne Eiysrevs

E cTN sTANT.s PEED PecT PELLER

Compared to a fixed-pitch propeller, the con-
stant-speed propeller is much more efficient.
It is often referred to as a variable-pitch or
controllable-pitch propeller, since you can
adjust the blade angle for the most efficient
operation. The main advantage of a constant-
speed propeller is that it converts a high
percentage of the engine's power into
Figure [Link]
thrust over a wide range of r.p.m. and airspeed combinations. The engine
propellercontrol
changesthe pitch of-airplanes equipped with a constant-speedpropeller is controlled
,'
of the propeller directly by the throttle and indirectly by the propeller control. The
blades,thus con- power output of the engine is indicated on the manifold pressure
trollingengine gauge and adjusted using the throttle. The propeller control is used
r.p . m .whic
, his to change the pitch of the propeller blades. The resulting engine
indicatedon the r.p.m. is indicated on the tachometer. [Figure 2-54]
tachometer.

The propeller control permits you to select a low blade

angle and high r.p.m. setting for maximum thrust on
takeoff. After you reach cruising flight conditions, you
can use a higher pitch and a lower r.p.m. setting to
maintain adequate thrust for the desired airspeed. This
is comparable to
using a low gear in
your car to accelerate,then using a high gear
for cruising speed. Most hydraulic pitch-
change mechanisms found on single-engine
airplanes use high-pressure oil to oppose the
aerodynamic twisting forces acting on the
blades. [Figure Z-ES]

Figure [Link] constant-speedpro-

peller'spitch is controlledby the move-

@ ment of oil withinthe pitch-change

assembly.
/\

HydraulicForce \
Aerodynamic Force

(0 il31il;#:#ifl1il,.lilIlffiy;?:l:,,i:;??,':i"
@ Iff#fJ,:'l'IifJ'ffi,';#.:xJTJ;e
regulatesthe flow of high-pressure
oil througha governor. towardthe high-pitchposition.

A hydraulic
pistonin the hubof thepropeller
is connected
Ct
G[iF
to 1@| Thegovernor
regulates
theoil pressure
sentto the
V each bladeby a pistonrod'This rod is attachedto forksthat Y pitch-changemechanismto maintainan equilibrium
slideover the pitch-changepin mountedin the root of each betweenaerodynamicand hydraulicpitch-changing
blade. forcesat the selectedr.p.m.

The oil pressuremovesthe pistontowardthe rear of the

2-3EJ cylinder,movingthe pistonrod and forksaft.
TF{e PgweRPLANT AND ReIa,reo EiYsrevs SEtrTIBN B

For a given r.p.m. setting, there is always a max-

imum allowable manifold pressure. Operating
propeller,you
With a constant-speed
above this level may cause internal engine
shouldavoidlow [Link] high
stress. Specific operating instructions are con-
manifoldpressureto preventinternal
tained in your POH. As a general rule, you
should avoid high manifold pressures with low
r . p. m .s e tti n g s .

PTTEPELLER [Link]
The propeller can be the most dangerous part of the airplane, and should be treated
with caution. You should routinely provide your passengersa thorough briefing on
how to avoid propeller hazards, stressing the need to stay well clear of the propeller
area at all times.

Occasionally, you may find it necessary to turn the propeller by hand to start the
engine. Be sure you have seen a demonstration and received instruction on the correct
procedure before attempting this yourself, since it can be extremely dangerous if done
improperly. Always ensure that a qualified pilot
is at the controls, and remember that the person
hand-propping the airplane is in charge of the When hand-starting an airplane,a compe-
starting procedure. tent pilot must be it tf'e controls.

2-39
trHAPTER 2 [Link] EiYsrevs

LOW-VOLTAGE
WARNINGLIGHT

TO FUEL QUANTITYINDICATORS
FUEL
IND.
TO FLASHINGBEACON

BCN
TO PITOTHEAT
PITOT
TO RADIOCOOLINGFAN

STROBE TO STROBELIGHTS
RADIO
ALTERNATOR FAN
CONTROL
UNIT PULLOFF TO LANDINGAND TAXI LIGHTS
LDG
LTS

B TO IGNITIONSWITCH

A TO W]NG FLAP SYSTEM

T TO RED DOORPOSTMAPLIGHT
MASTERSWITCH
TO LOW-VOLTAGE
WARNING LIGHT

INST
TO INSTRUMENT,RADIO,COMPASS
LTS AND POST LIGHTS

TO OIL TEMPERATURE
GAUGE
TO TURN COORDINATOR

TO LOW-VACUUM
WARNINGLIGHT

SWITCH/CIRCUITBREAKERTO
STANDBYVACUUMPUMP
STBYVAC
TO WHITE DOORPOSTLIGHT

TO AUDIOMUTINGRELAY

TO CONTROLWHEEL MAPLIGHT
NAV
DOME TO NAVIGATIONLIGHTS

TO DOME LIGHT
TO TO RADIO
WING
FLAP RADIO1
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
TO RADIO

TO RADIOOR TRANSPONDER
BATTERY AND ENCODINGALTIMETER
CONTACTOR RADIO3

GROUNDSERVICE
TO RADIO
PLUG RECEPTACLE

/e\'
(AUTo-RESET)
(AUTO-RES
K)ll crRcurTBREAKER
IEAKER FUSE +F DroDE -.\,rr../i RESrsroR
NA/R
Yg @
(PUSH
"'*"urrBREAKERroRESEr'
ffi (puLL-oFF,
ffi Ffr?yiL?Ffr+ER
(NorsE
cAPAcrroR FTLTER)
Jt
Figure [Link] electricalsystemschematiclikethis sampleis includedin most POHs.
Tne PowenpLANT ANr> [Link] Sysrevs EiEtrTIEN E|

EITtrTRItrAL SvsTEMEi
The electrical systems found in light airplanes reflect the increased use of sophisticated
avionics and other electrical accessories. Since most operations in today's flight envi-
ronment are highly dependent on the airplane's electrical system, you should have an
understanding of the system and its basic components. [Figure 2-56]

ATTERNATTsR
On light airplanes, electrical energy is supplied by a'1,4-or 28-volt direct-current sys-
tem, which usually is powered by an engine-driven alternator. Some older airplanes
may be equipped with generators, but alter-
nators have many advantages for airplanes,
such as light weight, lower maintenance, and
uniform output, even at low engine r.p.m.
[Figure 2-57]

Alternators produce alternating current (AC)

first, and then convert it to direct current (DC)
for use in the system. Direct current is deliv-
ered to a bus bar which serves to distribute
the current to the various electrical compo-
nents on the aircraft. Although the various
bus bar accessoriesare protected by circuit
breakers, you should make sure all electrical
equipment is turned off before you start the
engine. This protects sensitive components, Figure [Link] mountedto, and driven by
particularly the radios, from damage which the engi ne.
may be caused by random voltages generated
during the starting process.

E|nrrERY
Another essential part of the electrical system is the storage battery. Its main purpose is
to provide a means of starting the engine, but it also permits limited operation of electri-
cal components, such as the radios, without starting the engine. In addition, the battery
is a valuable source of standby or emergency electrical power in case of alternator mal-
function.

AVMETER
An ammeter is used to monitor the electrical current in amperes within the system.
Actually, there are two types of ammeters. One reflects current flowing to or from the bat-
tery. The other type simply displays the load placed on the alternator and is often
referred to as a loadmeter. [Figure 2-58]

Figure [Link] the pointerof the ammeter

on the left is on the plus side, it showsthe
chargingrate of the battery.A minus indication
means more currentis being drawnfrom the
batterythan is being [Link] loadmeter
type on the right reflectsthe total load placed
on the alternatorby the system'selectrical
accessories,When all electricalcomponents
are turned off, it reflectsthe amountof charg-
ing currentdemandedby the battery.

2-41
tr HAPTE R 2 AITTPLANE SivsrEvs

A charging ammeter (needle on the plus side) is normal following an engine start, since
the battery power lost in starting is being replaced. After the battery is charged, the
ammeter should stabilize near zero and the alternator will supply the electrical needs of
the system. A discharging ammeter means the electrical load is exceeding the output of
the alternator, and the battery is helping to supply system power, This may mean the
alternator is malfunctioning, or the electrical load is [Link] any event, you should
reduce your electrical load to conserve battery power and land as soon as practicable.

With a loadmeter, you can tell immediately if the alternator is operating normally,
because it should reflect the amount of current being drawn by the electrical equipment.
The POH will tell you the normal load to expect. Loss of the alternator will cause the
loadmeter to indicate zero.

MA,STER SwITtrH
The master switch controls the entire electrical system. The airplane's ignition system is
independent of the electrical system, since magnetos supply current to the spark plugs.
However, the engine's starter won't operate unless the master switch is
ON becausepower for the starter comes from the electrical system, not
the magnetos. [Figure 2-59]

During normal operations, both sides of the master switch are on. In
case of alternator malfunction, it can be turned OFF to isolate it from
the system. If you want to check equipment on the ground before you
start the engine, you can select only the battery side.

EInnuIT B n E a K T R S . A , N DF u s n s
As the electrical system schematic shows, circuit breakers or fuses are
used to protect various components from overloads. With circuit
breakers, resetting the breaker usually will reactivate the circuit, Figure 2-59. Most airplanes
unless an overload or short exists. If this is the case,the circuit breaker use a split-rockertype mas-
will continue to pop, indicating an electrical problem. [Figure 2-60] ter [Link] righthalf is
labeledBATand controlsall
Manufacturers usually provide a holder for spare fuses in the event powerto the electricalsys-
you need to replace one in flight. In fact, FARs require you to carry [Link] left half is labeled
extra fuses for night flight. AIT and controlsthe alter-
nator.
In some airplanes, certain electrical system problems may be signaled by the illumina-
tion of a low-voltage warning light. You should refer to the POH for a thorough descrip-
tion of normal and emergency operations for the electrical system.

Figure 2-60. As a pilot,you shouldknow the locationof the circuitprotectiondevicefor each

electricalcomponent,Normally,the component'sname is printedon the circuitbreakerpanel
near its associatedfuse,
Trre PowerrpLANT AND [Link] Svsrsvs EiEtrTIEN B i

SUMMARY ETTEEKLI 5T
/ The continuous energy-creating process in almost all reciprocating airplane
engines is referred to as the four-stroke operating cycle. The steps in this cycle are:
the intake of the fuel/air mixture, the compression by the piston, the ignition and
expansion of the gases,and the venting of the burned gases.

/ Engine speed for aircraft equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller is displayed on a

tachometer in revolutions per minute [r.p.m.).

,/ A constant-speed propeller is adiustable from the cockpit. A manifold pressure

gauge is used on these types of airplanes to monitor engine output by displaying
the pressure inside the engine in inches of mercury (in. Hg.).

/ The carburetor mixes incoming air with fuel and delivers it to the combustion
chamber.

I The operating principle of float-type carburetors is based on the difference in pres-

sure at the venturi throat and the air inlet.

/ The fuellair mixture can be adjusted from the cockpit with the mixture control.

/ Carburetor ice may be caused by fuel vaporization and decreasing air pressure in
the venturi which causes a sharp temperature drop in the carburetor.

/ Carburetor ice is more likely to occur when temperature$ &rebelow 21oC (f0'F) and
relative humidity is above 80%. To combat the effects of carburetor ice, engines
with float-type earburetors employ a carburetor heat system which is designed to
eliminate ice by routing air across a heat $ource h'efore it enters the carburetor.

/ One of the most significant advantages of the fuel injection system is the relative
freedom from the formation of induction icing.
.z-q\
/ Sea-level performance can be obtained even at high altitudes using either a super-
charging or a turbocharging system. 'i,r'P"-tL

1 The ignition system is made up of magnetos, spark plugs, interconnecting wires,

and the ignition switch.

/ Detonation occurs when fuel in the cylinders explodes instead of burning

smoothly.

Preignition is a result of the fuel/air mixture being ignited in advanceof the normal
timed ignition.

Fuel-pump and gravity-feedsystemsare similar, exceptthe gravity systemdoesnot

include engine-drivenor electricboostpumps or fuel pressuregauges.

To help prevent moisture buildup it is a good practiceto ensurethat an airplane's

tanks are refueled following the last flight of the day.

A wet-sump systemusesan oil pump to draw oil from the sump and route it to the
[Link] systemoperationcan be monitored by referring to the oil pressureand
temperaturegauges.
 tr HAPTE R 2 AIepuaNe EiYSTEMS

/ Cooling air enters the engine compartment through an inlet behind the propeller
hub where it is further directed to the hottest part of the engine by baffles.

/ Exhaust is normally directed out below the engine compartment through a muffler
and tailpipe. Metal shrouds around the muffler capture heat which is used to
defrost the windscreen and heat the cabin.

,/ A fixed-pitch propeller uses a single blade angle which is selected on the basis of
what is best for the primary function of the airplane.

,/ A constant-speed propeller control permits you to select a blade angle that is the
most appropriate for the flight operation being conducted. The propeller control
regulates engine r.p.m. as shown on the tachometer, while the throttle controls
engine power output, as indicated on the manifold pressure gauge.

/ With a constant-speed propeller, 1lou should avoid low r.p.m. settings with high
manifold pressure.

When hand-propping an airplane, always ensure that you have received instruc-
tion in the correct procedure, and a qualified pilot is at the controls.

Alternators produce alternating current (AC) first, and then convert it to direct cur-
rent [DC) for use in the airplane electrical system.

One type of ammeter reflects current flowing to or from the battery while the other
type, called a loadmeter, simply displays the load placed on the alternator.

Kev TERMs
Turbine Engine Detonation

Reciprocating Engine Preignition

Four-Stroke Operating Cycle Fuel-Pump System

Throttle Fuel Pressure Gauge

Mixture Vapor Lock

Intake Port Gravity-Feed System

Carburetor Fuel Tanks

Carburetor Ice Fuel Quantity Gauges

Carburetor Heat Fuel Selector Valve

Fuel Injection Fuel Strainer

Supercharger Dry-Sump System

Turbocharger Wet-Sump System

Magneto Oil Pressure Gauge

2-44 Ignition Switch Oil Temperature Gauge

Tne [Link] AND Reu^ergo EiYstevs SiEtrTIEN B

Cowl Flaps Propeller Control

Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge Alternator

Climb Propeller Alternating Current (AC)

Cruise Propeller Direct Current (DC)

Fixed-Pitch Propeller Ammeter

Constant-SpeedPropeller Master Switch

AuEsrrENS
1,. Identify the four-stroke operating cycle step shown in each of the following illus-
trations.

2 . As an airplane climbs, do you enrichen or lean the mixture to maintain an opti-

mum fuel/air ratio?

3 . What is your first indication of carburetor ice in an airplane equipped with a fixed-
pitch propeller?

4 . Explain why an engine equipped with a fueI injection system is less susceptible to
induction icing than one equipped with a float-type carburetor.

5 . The uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the fuel/air mixture within the cylinder's
combustion chamber describes which type of abnormal combustion? What actions
can you take while airborne to help correct for this problem?

6 . If the fueI grade specified for your airplane is not available, can you use a lower
grade of fuel? A higher grade?

2-45
 tr HAPTE R 2 ATepLANE Svsrevs

Describe at least two functions performed by the engine oil system

If a constant-speed propeller is set to a high [Link]., will the blade pitch (angle) be
high or low?

9 . True/False. To prevent internal engine damage in an airplane equipped with

a
constant-speed propeller, ]ou should avoid low r.p.m. settings *itfr a high
manifold pressure.

1 0 . Immediately after engine start you notice that the ammeter shows a discharge. Is
this normal?

z-46
 ffi
ffiffiffiryxffimN
F*tu*ffiMry
* a*ffiryKkffic\ffiffik*ryffiffi

Of all the instruments located in the airplane cockpit, the indicators which provide you
information regarding the airplane's attitude, direction, altitude, and speed are
collectively referred to as the flight instruments. Traditionally, the flight instruments are
sub-divided into categoriesaccording to their method of operation. The instruments that
reflect your speed, rate of climb or descent, and altitude operate on air pressure
differentials and are called pitot-static instruments. A pictorial view of the airplane's
attitude and rate of turn is provided by the attitude indicator and turn coordinator,
which operate on gyroscopic principles. The airplane's heading indicator, which also
operates using a gyroscope, is usually set by using information from another flight
instrument, the magnetic compass. [Figure 2-6tl

Figure [Link] instrumentscan be groupedaccordingto methodof operation- gyro-

scopic,magnetic,and pitot-static.
tr HAPTE R Z ^AreernNe SiysrEMS

EngineIndicatingand Crew tr',ifunctionDisptay

(MFD)
AlertingSystem(EICAS) @

FlightManagementControl
DisplayUnits(CDU)

PITTST-STATIG
INFTrrUMENTs
Pitot-static instruments rely on air pressure differences to measure speed
and altitude.
The airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator all use surrounding,
or
static, air pressure. Pitot pressure, which is only used by the airspeed indicator,
is the
combination of the static pressure plus the pressure generated as the aircraft
moves
through the air.
Fulerrr lNsrRuMENTEi EiEtrTIEN tr

TPrEtrTs BF ATUFsFHTRIG
GnNrrITIFNS
Since changes in static pressure can affect pitot-static instrument operation, it is neces-
sary to understand some basic principles of the atmosphere. Typically, air exerts about
[Link] per square inch (lb/inz) at sea level. lFigure 2-621As altitude increases,
pressure steadily [Link] example, at 18,000 feet, atmospheric pressure decreases
to approximately one-half of sea level pressure.

In addition to changes in altitude,

atmospheric pressure can be affected
\ ropof the
by changes in temperature. For
Atmosphere
instance, assuming that all' other
variables remain constant, a decrease
in temperature will result in a lower
atmospheric pressure. This occurs
because a cooler temperature slows
the rnovement of the air molecules,
thereby lowering the pressure they
exert on the surrounding atmos-
phere. On the other hand, a warmer
temperature increases atmospheric
pressure, aII else being equal.

Figure 2-62. Atmosphericpressure may

To provide a common reference for also be definedas the weightof a single
columnof [Link] pressuredecreases
temperature and pressure, the from the point of measurementat sea
International Standard Atmosphere levelto the top of the atmosphere.
(ISA) has been established. These

14.7Pounds

1 SquareInch

Sea Level

2-49
tr HAPTE R Z ATepLANE EivsrEvs

standard conditions are the basis for certain flight

instruments and most airplane performance data. At
sea level, the standard atmosphere consists of a baro-
metric pressureof [Link] in. Hg. (tots.z millibars) and
a temperature of 15oC (59.F). Thi s means that,
under these standard conditions, the weight of a
col umn of ai r at sea l evel w i l l w ei gh t+ ,T Ib/i n2.
[Figure 2-63]

Heightof
Barometer
29.92Inches
( 1 0 1 3 . 2M i l l i b a r s )
Figure 2-63,Atmosphericpressurecan be measuredwith
mercuryin an invertedtube whichis closedon one [Link]
weightof mercuryin the columnis balancedby the pressure
(weight)of the atmosphereover the [Link] sea
levelin a standardatmosphere,the weightof the atmosphere
supportsa columnof mercury29.92incheshigh.
Flrsrrr I NSTpUMENTS EiEtrTIEN tr

Since both pressure and temperature normally

decrease with altitude, standard lapse rates
can help you calculate the temperatures and fSA at sea levelequals [Link]., or
pressures you can anticipate at various alti- 1013.2millibars,and has a temperatureof
tudes. In the lower atmosphere, the standard 15'C. TemperatureOecreasesapproxi-
pressure lapse rate for each 1,000 feet of for each 1,000-footincreasein altitude.
altitude is approximately 1.00 in. Hg., and
the standard temperature lapse rate is 2"C
(3.5'F). [Figure 2-64]

Figure 2-64. Atmosphericpressureand temperaturedecreaseas altitude increasesin a standard

[Link] is usefulfor planningpurposes,it is importantto rememberthat there can be
largevariationsfrom standardconditionsin the real atmosphere.

[Link] SIVSTEVI
Pitot-static instruments use pressure-sensitive devices to convert pressure supplied by
the pitot-static system to instrument indications in the cockpit. Pitot pressure, also
called impact or ram air pressure, is supplied
by the pitot tube or head. The pitot tube is usu-
ally mounted on the wing or on the nose sec-
tion, so the opening is exposed to the relative
wind. This arrangement allows ram air pres-
sure to enter the pitot tube before it is affected
by the airplane's structure. Since the pitot tube
opening faces forward, an increase in speed
increases ram air pressure. Static pressure
 tr HAPTE R 2 Arerrt-a,Ne Svstgvs

enters the pitot-static system through a static port, which is normally flush-mounted on
the side of the fuselage in an area of relatively undisturbed air. [Figure z-Gsl

PITOT HEAT SWITCH Vertical

Electricalheatingelements Airspeed Speed
Altimeter
may be installedto remove Indicator Indicator
ice from the pitottube.
\ \
\ \
\
\

Figure 2-65.A typical

pitot-staticsystem uses a
singlepitottube and one
or two [Link]
designscombinethe static DRAIN OPENING
STATIC PORT./
port with the pitottube. An openingnormallyis located
A static port is normally located
near the aft portion of the
pressurechamberto drain on the side of the [Link]
airplane may have one or two
moisturefrom the pitottube.
static [Link] two ports are
PITOTTUBE used, they are usually located
Ram air pressureentersthe
on each side of the fuselageto
systemthrougha hole in the providean averagestatic
forwardend of the pitot tube. [Link] allows
for a more accurate reading
undercertainflightconditions.

AIRsFETD INpIEATT]R
The airspeed indicator is the only instrument to operate using both pitot and static pres-
sure. The speed of your airplane through the air is determined by comparing ram air
pressure with static air pressure - the greater the differential, the greater the speed. The
airspeed indicator is divided into color-coded arcs that define speed ranges for different
phases of flight. The upper and lower limits of the colored arcs correspond to some air-
speed limitations, called V-speeds. [Figure Z-OO]

vso
The lowerlimitof the white arc
vNE(RED L|NE) correspondsto Vs6which is the vsr
The red line is Vps, of the never- stallingspeedor the minimum The lowerlimitof the green arc is Vs1,
exceed speed. Operatingabove steadyflightspeed in the landing and is definedas the stallingspeed or
this speed is prohibitedsince it configuration. In smallairplanes, the minimumsteadyflightspeed
may result in damage or structural this is the power-offstall speed obtainedin a specifiedconfiguration. For
failure. at the maximumlandingweight small airplanes,this is the power-offstall
in the landingconfiguration(gear speed at the maximumtakeotfweight in
YELLOW ARC and flapsdown). the clean configuration(gearup, if
The yellowarc indicatesthe retractable,and flaps up).You should
caution [Link] may fly within check the POH for specific information
this rangeonly in smoothair, and on your airplane.
then only with caution.
WHITE ARC
vruo This arc is commonly referredto as
Figure [Link] The upper limitof the green arc the ftap operatingrange,since its
additionto delin- correspondsto Vpg, which is the lowerlimit representsthe fullflap stall
eatingvarious maximumstructuralcruisingspeed. speed and its upper limitprovidesthe
maximumflap [Link] usually
speed ranges,the You should not exceed it except in
fly your approachesand landingsat
boundariesof the smoothair.
speedswithinthe white arc.
color-codedarcs
GREENARC
also identityair- This is the normaloperatingrange vre
speedlimitations. of the [Link] of your flying The upper limitof the white arc is Vps,
will occurwithinthis range. which indicatesthe maximumspeedwith
2-52 the flaps extended.
Fr-rsnr lNsrrruMENTS SEtrTIEN tr

Although the airspeed indicator presents

important airspeed limitations, not all V-
speeds are shown. For example, one very [Link]"r".:n:*n by color-coded
important speed not displayed is V6, or maneu- arcs on the [Link] whitearc
vering speed. This represents the maximum is the flap operatingrange,the greenarc is
speed at which you may apply full and abrupt for normaloperations,the yellowarc is the caution
control movement without the possibility of range,and the red line marksthe neverexceedspeed.
causing structural damage. It also represents lmportantairspeedsare also markedby the boundaries
the maximum speed that you can safely use of the color-codedarcs as shown in figure2-66.
 tr HAPTE R Z AreernNe Svsrevs

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2-54
Flterrr lNsreuMENTs SEtrTIEN tr J

during turbulent flight conditions. VA is

listed in the POH and also may be found on a SinceVa changeswith aircraftweight,it is
placard in the cockpit. It's important to check not markedon the airspeedindicator.
the corresponding aircraft weight when refer-
encing these speeds since Va changes with
weight. For instance, V6 may be 100 knots
when an airplane is heavily loaded and 90 knots when the load is light.

When you are flying a retractable-gearairplane, two other important speeds, which are
not specifically depicted on the airspeed indicator, should be taken into consideration.
One speed, known as V1p, should not be exceededwhen the gear is extended. The other
speed, called V16, is the maximum speed at which you can raise or lower the landing
[Link] should reference the airplane's POH for the corresponding airspeeds.

Tvpnn mp* AlnsFHHp

The airspeed you are likely to become most familiar with is that read directly from the
airspeed indicator, aptly referred to as indicated airspeed. Important performance air-
speeds such as takeoff, landing, and stall speeds are always the same indicated air-
speed, regardless of altitude. Other
important airspeeds include calibrated
.i r,. r '1. t ri

ai rspeed, true ai rspeed, and ground-

&
As altitudeincreases,the indicated
airspeedat which a givenairplanestallsin speed. [Figure 2-671
a specificconfigurationremainsthe same.

ATTIMHTHpt
The altimeter sensespressure changes and displays altitude in feet. It usually has three
pointers, or hands, to indicate the altitude. The longest pointer shows hundreds of feet,
t he m i d d l e -s i z e d p o i n te r i n d i cates thou-
sands of feet, and the shortest pointer shows
tens of thousands of feet. Since changes in The longestpointerof the altimetershows
air pressure directly affect the accuracy of hundredsof feet,the middle-sizedpointer
the altitude readout, the altimeter is indicatesthousandsof feet,and the shortest
equipped with an adjustable barometric pointershowstens of thousandsof feet.
scale. [Figure 2-68l

10,000ft Pointer

ALTIMETERSETTING
100ft Pointer The barometricpressurecan be
changedapproximately10 feet for
each .01 in. [Link] compensatefor
changesin atmospheric pressure.
AltitudeIndicationScale Increasing the altimetersettingwill
causethe indicatedaltitudeto
increasewhile decreasingthe
altimetersettingwillcausethe
indicatedaltitudeto decrease.
AltimeterSetting
AdjustmentKnob 1,000ft Pointer

Figure [Link] altimetershowsan altitudeof 2,[Link] barometricscalein the window

on the rightis set at 29.92inchesof mercury([Link].).
tr HAPTE R 2 [Link] Svsrevs
, l : . , . - :

TvpEs tfF Aurrrurrg

The altimeter measures the vertical elevation of an object above a given reference point.
The reference may be the surface of the earth, mearr sea level (MSL), or some other point.
There are several different types of altitude,
depending on the reference point used. The j : :
i ' : , : : l

five most common types are: indicated, pres-

&
Pressurealtitude is the height above the
sure, density, true, and absolute. Indicated when 2ee2issetin
altitude is the altitude measured by your il:Hfi::::"li:""
altimeter, and the one you will use most often
during flight. If you set your altimeter to the
standard sea level atmospheric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg., your indicated altitude wiII be
equivalent to pressure altitude. This is the vertical distance above the theoretical plane
where atmospheric pressure is equal to 29.92 in. Hg. The theoretical pressure line is
referred to as the standard datum plane. [Figure 2-69]

10,000

o
o
IL
o
o
=
=
f

5,000

Sea Level
Denver29.92' Sea Level Pressures New Orleans29.92"

Figure [Link] a standardatmosphere,the atmosphericpressure,or stationpressure,at sea levelis

29.92 in. Hg., and the stationpressure5,000 feet abovesea levelis 24"92in. [Link] is, if you could set
your altimeterto 24.92 at Denver,it would read 0 [Link] altimeterto 29.92in Denverwould
cause the altimeterto displayyour altitudeas 5,000 feet abovethe standarddatum plane (sea levelin a
standardatmosphere).

Pressure altitude can be combined with the

existing temperature to compute a theoret-
Densityaltitudeis the pressurealtitude
ical value called density altitude,which is
corrected
for nonstandard temperature.
an important factor in determining air-
Densityaltitudeincreases as ambient
plane performance. On a standard day,
temperatu
re increases.
density altitude is equal to pressure alti-
tude. When the outside (ambient) air tem-
Fl-tsrrr lNsrnuMENTs EiEtrTIEN tr

Figure [Link] standardatmospherecurve shows

how density decreaseswith altitude in the standard
[Link] standardconditions,the surface
densityaltitudeis equal to the elevationof the airport.
Undervery warm conditions,the air densityis lower
and the densityaltitudeincreases.

perature is above standard, density

altitude is higher than pressure alti-
tude, and aircraft performance is
reduced. [Figure 2-7O]

True altitude is the actual height of an

object above mean sea level (MSL). On
aeronautical charts, the elevation figures for
fixed objects, such as airports, towers, and TV
antennas, are true altitudes. During flight,
true, pressure, and indicated altitude are all
equal, but only with the correct altimeter set-
ting in a standard atmosphere. On the ground,
true altitude will match indicated altitude
(field elevation) when you set the altimeter to
the local pressure setting. [Figure 2-711

Figure [Link] actualverticaldistanceof the airplaneabove mean sea levelis calledtrue altitude.
The heightof fixed objectsis usuallygiven in terms of true altitude.
2-57
tr HAPTE R Z AIppLANE SYsrevg

The actual height of the airplane above the

earth's surface over which it is flying
is referred to as absolute altitude, This alti-
tude varies with the height of the airplane,
as well as the height of the surface.
Absolute altitude is commonly referred to
as height above ground level (AGL).
[F i g u re 2 -7 2 1

Figure 2-72,Yourabsolute
altitudecan change rapidly
as you pass over varying
terrainelevations.

AITIMETER Enrrr:Rs
Although the altimeter is calibrated based on the International Standard Atmosphere,
actual atmospheric conditions seldom match standard values. In addition, Iocal pres-
sure readings within a given area normally change over a period of time, and pressure
frequently changes as you fly from one airport to another. As a result, altimeter indi-
cations are subject to errors. The extent of the errors depends on how much the pres-
sure, temperature, and lapse rates deviate from standard, as well as how recently you
have reset your altimeter.
Fllerrr lNsreuMENTEi SEtrTIEN tr

The most common altimeter error is also the

easiest to correct. It occurs when you fail to
keep the altimeter set to the local altimeter
lf you fly from an area of high pressureto
setting. For example, assume your altimeter is
an area of lowerpressurewithoutresetting
set to 30.00 in. Hg. and you are flying at a
your altimetetthe altimeterwill indicate
constant altitude of 3,500 feet MSL. If you fly
higherthan the actual(true)[Link] you do nol reset
into an area where atmospheric pressure is
your altimeterwhen flyingfrom a low pressurearea to
29. 5 0 i n . H g ., th e a l ti me te r w i l l sense thi s
an area of high pressure,your altimeterwill indicate
decreasein pressure as an increase in altitude
lowerthan actual(true)altitude.
and will display a higher reading. To main-
tain your "desired" altitude, you will be
inclined to lower the nose of the airplane and
descend. [Figure 2-731

4,000

J
U)

3,500
o
o
IL

3,000

Aircraft
Altimeter
Setting

3 0 . 5 0i n .H g . 3 0 . 0 0i n .H g . 2 9 . 5 0i n .H g . 2 9 . 5 0i n .H g .
CorrectAltimeterSetting

Figure [Link] you fly from an areaof higherpressureto an areaol lowerpressurewithout

resettingyour altimeter,you may tly at a loweraltitudethan you had [Link] you resetthe
altimeterto the carrectsetting,you can maintainthe desiredaltitude.

Since atmospheric pressure decreases

approximately one inch of mercury for
each 1,000-foot increase in altitude, you
can compute potential altimeter errors. For
A one inch changein the altimetersetting example, if the altimeter setting decreased
equals1,OOO feet of indicatedaltitude from 30.00 to 29.50, i t w oul d resul t i n a
changein the same direction. change of [Link] i n. H g. S i nce one i nch
equal s 1,000 feet, 0.50 i nches equal s 500
feet (1,000 x .50 = 500). Maintaining your
indicated altitude will result in a true alti-
tude 500 feet lower than you intended. A
good memory aid is, "When flying from
high to low, Iook out below."

z-59
 tr HAPTE R 2 Alpeu,Ns SYsrevs

Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude more rapidly in cold air than warm air.
This means that if the atmosphere is warmer than standard, the indicated altitude will
be lower than true altitude. In colder-than-standard air. the altimeter will indicate an
altitude higher than true altitude. [Figurc 2-74]

4,000

J
U)

o
o 3,500
LL

Aircraft
Altimeter
Setting

30.00in. Hg. 30.00in. Hg.

CorrectAltimeterSetting

Figure 2'74. On warm days,true altitudeis higherthan [Link] altitudeis

lowerthan indicatedin colderair.

Temperature errors are generally smaller than those associated with sea level pressure
variations. For example, if the actual temperature is 10"C warmer than standard, true
altitude is about a% higher. This is only 40 feet at 1,000 feet, but the error increases with
increased altitude. At 12,000 feet MSL, a b00-
foot error would exist. This discrepancy
could be critical while flying over mountain- When atmospherictemperatureis higher
ous terrain. than standard,pressurelevelsare raised,
and your true altitude is higher than your
The best way to minimize altimeter errors [Link] temperatureis colder than
resulting from pressure changes is to update standard,pressurelevelsare lowered,and your true
your altimeter setting frequently. In most altitudeis lowerthan your indicatedaltitude.
cases,you use the current altimeter setting of
the nearest reporting station along your route
of flight. If you encounter areas of extremely low pressure (below 28.00 in. Hg.) or
unusually high pressure (above 31.00 in. Hg.), you should exercise caution since large
variations from standard atmospheric pressure conditions can have an increasingly
detrimental effect on altimeter accuracy.
Fl-rerrr lNsreuMENTEI EiEtrTIEN

VeRTItrAL E pEED I N oIEATtf R

The vertical speed indicator (VSI), which sometimes is called a vertical velocity indicator
(WI), uses static pressure to display a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute. As the air-
plane climbs or descends,the VSI determines the vertical speed by measuring how fast the
ambient air pressure is increasing or decreasing.
[Figure 2-751

Figure [Link] verticalspeed

indicatortells you how fast you
are climbingor descending. The
VSI on the left shows a 300 f.p.m.
descent,whilethe VSI on the
rightreflectsa 300 [Link].

The VSI is capable of displaying two dif-

ferent types of information. One is called trend,
and the other is called rate. Trend information shows you an immediate indication of an
increase or decrease in the airplane's rate of climb or descent. Rate information shows you
a stabilized rate of change. For example, if you are maintaining a steady b00 f.p.m. climb,
and you lower the nose slightly, the VSI will immediately sense this change and display a
decreasein the rate of climb. This first indication is called the trend. After a short period of
time, the VSI will stabilize and display the new rate of climb, which, in this example, would
be something less than 500 f.p.m.

BuntrKAtriE EF THT
[Link] EivsTEM
Although pitot-static instruments have some limitations, usually they are very reliable. Gross
errors almost always indicate blockage of the pitot tube, the static port(s), or both. Blockage may
be caused by moisture (including ice), dirt, or even insects. During preflight, you should make
sure the pitot tube cover is removed. Then, check
the pitot and static port openings. If they are
clogged, the openings should be cleaned by a cer-
tificated mechanic. A clogged pitot tube only
affects the accuracy of the airspeed indicator.
However, a blockage of the static system not only
affects the airspeed indicator, but can also cause
errors in the altimeter and vertical speed indicator.

BlntrKED Plrsr SysrEM

The pitot system can become blocked completely, or only partially if the pitot tube drain hole
remains open. If the pitot tube becomes clogged and its associateddrain hole remains clear, ram
air will no longer be able to enter the pitot system. Air already in the system wiII vent through
the drain hole, and the remaining pressure wiII drop to
ambient (outside) air pressure. Under these circum-
stances,the airspeed indicator reading decreasesto
zero, because the airspeed indicator senses
no difference between ram and static air Static
pressure. In other words, the airspeed indi-
cator acts as if the airplane is station€ry on
the ramp. The apparent loss of airspeed is
not usually instantaneous.
Instead, the airspeed gener- PitotTube
ally drops slowly to zero.
[Figure 2-761 Figure 2-76.A cloggedpitot tube, but
Blockage -Drain cleardrainhole,will resultin an
Hole
airspeedindicationof zero, 2-61
tr HAPTE R Z AIRpLANE EivsrEvs

If the pitot tube, drain hole, and static system all become clogged in flight, changesin air-
speed will not be indicated due to the trapped pressures. However, if the static system
remains clear, airspeed will change with altitude. An apparent increase in the ram air
pressure relative to static pressure will occur as altitude increasesabove the level where
the pitot tube and drain hole became clogged. This pressure differential causes the air-
speed indicator to show an increase in speed. A decreaseof indicated airspeed will
occur as the airplane descends below the altitude at which the pitot system became
obstructed. [Figure 2-771

Figure [Link] the pitotsystembecomescompletelycloggedand the staticsystem remains

clear,indicatedairspeedwill vary as altitudeis changedeven thoughthe speed throughthe air
remainsthe same.

It is possible for the pitot tube to become obstructed during flight through visible mois-
ture when temperatures are near the freezing level. If your airplane is equipped with
pitot heat, you should turn it on to prevent the pitot tube from becoming clogged with
ice. Consult your POH for specific procedures regarding the use of pitot heat.
Flrsrrr lNsreuMENTEi EiEtrTIEN tr

Blt:trKED Sranrc EiysrEM

If the static system becomes blocked but the pitot tube remains clear, the airspeed indi-
cator will continue to operate, however it is inaccurate. Airspeed indications will be
slower than the actual speed when the airplane is operated above the altitude where the
static ports became clogged becausethe trapped static pressure is higher than normal for
that altitude. Conversely, when you operate at a lower altitude, a faster than actual air-
speed will be displayed due to the relatively low static pressure trapped in the system.

A blockage of the static system also affects the altimeter and VSI. Trapped static pressure
will cause the altimeter to freeze at the altitude at which the blockage occurred. In the
case of the VSI, a blocked static system will produce a continuous zero indication.
[Figure 2-78]

Inaccurate
Airspeed ConstantZero Frozen
Indications Indication
on VSI Altimete

Figure 2-78. A blocked /'*'

static system affects all
pitot-staticinstruments
in some way.

/
Blockage

\ PirotTube In some airplanes, you can bypass a blocked

static system by using an alternate static
source. In most [Link] alternate source is
vented inside the cockpit where ambient air pressure is lower than outside static pres-
sure. As a result, minor pitot-static instrument errors may occur, such as slightly higher
than normal airspeed and altimeter indications. In addition, the VSI may display a
momentary climb immediately after the alternate static source is opened. You should
check your POH for information on the use of alternate air.

triYRrf eitrrJpltr Attitudeindicator

INSTRUMTNTEI showsa,rightturn

The primary gyroscopic instruments

used on most training airplanes include
the turn coordinator, attitude indicator,
and heading indicator. [Figure 2-791
Gyroscopic instrument operation is
based on two fundamental concepts
that apply to gyroscopes - rigidity in
spaceand precession.

Turncoordinator movesfrom
Figure 2-79. As you climb,descend,or turn, you
indicatesa rightturn northerlyto easterlydirection
can cross-checkthe gyroscopicinstrumentsto
indicatinga rightturn
confirmyour attitudeand direction.
2-63
 tr HAPTE R 2 AlRelR Ne EivstEvs

F[rcnprrY rN [Link]
Rigidity in space refers to the principle that a wheel with a heavily weighted rim spun
rapidly will remain in a fixed position in the plane in which it is spinning. By mounting
this wheel, or gyroscope, on a set of gimbal rings, the gyro is able to rotate freely in any
direction. Thus, if the gimbal rings are tilted, twisted, or otherwise
moved, the gyro remains in the plane in which it was originally
spinning. [Figure 2-80]

GimbalRings

Figure 2-80. Regardlessof the positionof lts base, a gyro tends to remain
rigid in space, with its axis of rotationpointed in a constantdirection.

PrqEtrEEiEiITfN
Precession is the tilting or turning of a gyro in response to pressure. Unfortunately, it is
not possible to mount a gyro in a frictionless environment. A small force is applied to
the gyro whenever the airplane changes direction. The reaction to this force occurs in
the direction of rotation, approximately g0o ahead of the point where the force was
applied. This causes slow drifting and minor erroneous indications in the gyroscopic
instruments.

ScrunttrEsi rfF PcrwrR

In order to provide accurate instrument indications, a source of power is required to
keep the gyros spinning. Most small airplanes use two different sources of power to
ensure that you have at least one reliable indication of aircraft bank attitude in the event
of a power failure. The turn coordinator is typically an electrically powered instrument
while the attitude and heading indicators normally receive power from a vacuum (suc-
tion) system. [Figure 2-81,].
Figure 2-81. Air is first drawn into the
HeadingIndicator
vacuum system through a filter assembly.
It then moves through the attitudeand
Vacuum
heading indicatorswhere it causes the
Valve
gyros to spin. After that, it continuesto
the engine-drivenvacuumpump where it Vacuum
is expelled.A relief valve preventsthe P ump
vacuum pressureor suction from exceed- /,
ing prescribedlimits.
\on,,ro" /
Overboard
Indicator Vent Line

VacuumAir Filter
Futerrr ItrtSTRUMENTS EiEtrTIEN tr

Figure 2-82. Duringflight,the suctiongaugeshouldindicatein the [Link] not,your

attitudeand headingindicatorsmay not be reliable.

It is important for you to monitor vacuum pressure during

flight, because the attitude and heading indicators may not
provide reliable information when suction pressure is low.
The vacuum or suction gauge generally is marked to indicate
the normal range. [Figure 2-82]

Some airplanes are equipped with a warning light which illu-

minates when the vacuum pressure drops below the accept-
able level. In addition, some airplanes also may be equipped
with an electrically driven, standby vacuum pump.

TUrtN ETTurntrrINATTIrt
The turn coordinator is the relatively modern version of the early turn-and-slip
indicator, many of which are still in use today. Both types of indicators provide an indi-
cation of turn direction and quality as well as a backup source of bank information in the
event of attitude indicator failure. The primary difference between the two is the display
of turn, or roll, information. The turn-and-slip indicator uses a pointer, called a turn
needle, and the turn coordinator employs a miniature airplane. Both indicators use a ball
in a tube, called an inclinometer, to provide information relating to the quality of the
turn. [Figure 2-831

Figure 2-83. Duringyour

training,you may encounter
eithera turn-and-slipindicator
or a turn coordinator;both
provideessentiallythe same
information.

This discussion will concentrate on the turn coordinator since they are more prevalent
in training aircraft. When you are rolling into or out of a turn, the miniature airplane
banks in the direction the airplane is rolled. A rapid roll rate causes the miniature air-
plane to bank more steeply than a slow roll rate. You can use the turn coordinator to
establish and maintain a standard-rate turn by aligning the wing of the miniature air-
plane with the turn index. At this rate, you will turn 3" per second and complete a 360o
turn in two minutes. The turn coordinator only indicates the rate of turn and does not
display a specific angle of bank. [Figure 2-84]

MiniatureAirplane

Figure [Link] miniature

airplaneis level,as shown on the
left,the airplaneis neitherturningnor
[Link] you establisha bank, Level lndex
the miniatureairplanealso banks.
The indicatoron the right shows a Turn Index
standard rate turn to
the right.
lnclinometer

LevelFlight Standard-RateRightTurn
2-65
 [Link] Svsrevs

The inclinometer is used to depict airplane yow, which is the side-to-side movement of
the airplane's nose. It consists of a liquid-filled, curved tube with a ball inside. During
coordinated, straight-and-level flight, the force of gravity causes the ball to rest in the
Iowest part of the tube, centered between the reference lines. You maintain coordinated
flight by keeping the ball centered. If the ball is not centered, you can center it using the
rudder. To do this, you apply rudder pressure on the side where the ball is deflected. The
simple rule, "Step on the ball," may help you
remember which rudder pedal to depress.
The turn coordinatorshowsaircraftyaw
and roll movement. If aileron and rudder are coordinated during a
turn, the ball will remain centered in the tube.
If aerodynamic forces are unbalanced, the ball
moves away from the center of the tube. In a
slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the inside of
the turn. In a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves
to the outside of the turn. To correct for these conditions, and improve the quality of the
turn, you should "Step on the ball." [Figure 2-B5l You also may vary the angle of bank to
help restore coordinated flight from a slip or skid. To correct for a slip, you should
decreasebank and/or increase the rate of turn. To correct for a skid, increase the bank
and/or decreasethe rate of turn.

Figure 2-85,lf inadequaterightrudderis appliedin a rightturn,a slip will [Link]

much rightrudderwill causethe airplaneto skid throughthe [Link] ballwill
resultin a coordinatedturn.

^AmITLJpH INr:ImATmtrt
The attitude indicator sensesroll as well as pitch, which is the up and down movement
of the airplane's nose. The attitude indicator uses an artificial horizon and miniature air-
plane to depict the position of your air-
plane in relation to the true horizon. This
is especially useful when the natural As the airplanebanks,the relationship
horizon is obscured by clouds, reduced betweenthe miniatureairplaneand the
visibility, or darkness. [Figure 2-BO] horizonbar depictsthe directionof turn.

2-66
Flrerrr lNsreuMENTS SEtrTIEN tr I

Figure [Link] attitudeindicatorpresentsyou with a view of the airplaneas it would appearfrom [Link] angle
of bank is shown both pictoriallyby the relationshipof the miniatureaircraftto the deflectedhorizonbar and by the
alignmentof the pointerwith the bank scale at the top of the [Link] indicatedby the positionof the "nose,"
or center,of the miniatureairplanewith respectto the horizonbar.
tr HAPTE R Z AIpeue,Ng SYSTEMS

Prior to flight, you should set the miniature

airplane symbol so that it is level with the .ili
horizon bar. Once properly adjusted, mod- i
ern attitude indicators normally are very
reliable as long as the correct vacuum pres-
sure is maintained. Occasionally, however,
attitude indicators fail gradually without
providing obvious warning signals. Therefore, you should remember to periodically
cross-checkit with outside visual referencesand other flight instruments.

[Link] ITTTIEATTfR
The heading indicator, also called a directional gyro (DG), senses airplane movement
and displays heading based on a 360o azimuth, with the final zero omitted. In other
words, 6 indicates 60o, 21 indicates 21-0o,and so on. When properly set, it is your
primary source of heading information. Heading indicators in most training airplanes
are referred to as "free" gyros. This means they have no automatic, north-seeking system
built into them. For the heading indicator to display the correct heading,you must align
it with the magnetic compass before flight. However, precession can cause the selected
heading to drift from the set value. For this reason, you must regularly align the indica-
tor with the magnetic compass. [Figure 2-87]

[Link] shouldalign
the headingindicator (right)
withthe magnetic compasr
(left)beforeflightandcheckit
at approximately 1S-minute
intervals [Link]
aligningthe headingindicator
whileairborne, be certainyou
are in straight-and-level,unac-
celerated flight,withthe mag-
neticcompassshowinga
steadyindication.

Like most vacuum-powered instruments, the heading indicator may "tumble" during
excessive pitch and roll conditions. If the indicator has tumbled, you must realign it
with a known heading or with a stabilized indication from the magnetic compass.

MAGINHTItr ErrMFTAsEi
The magnetic compass was one of the first instruments to
be installed in an airplane, and it is still the only
direction seeking instrument in many air-
planes. If you understand its limitations, the
magnetic compass is a reliable source of head-
Lubber
ing information. [Figure 2-88]
Line

Compass
Card

[Link]'tworkon gyroscopic
principles,
butyouwilluseit frequently
to helpcorrect
for gyroscaptc
precessionin the headingindicator.
tr HAPTE R 2 ArR'ele,NE SvsrEvs

The magnetic compass is a self-contained

unit which does not require electrical or
suction power. To determine direction, the
compass uses is a simple bar magnet with
two poles. The bar magnet in the compass
is mounted so it can pivot freely and align
itself automatically with the earth's magnetic field. [Figure 2-8e]

Geographic
Magnetic
North Pole
North Pole

Magnetic
Field

Magnetic
Field

Magnetic
South Pole

Figure [Link] geographicnorth and south polesform the axis for the earth'[Link]
positionsare also referredto as true north and [Link] is formed by the magnetic
northand [Link] magneticforceflow out from each pole in all directions,and
eventuallyreturnto the oppositepole.A freelymountedbar magnetwill alignitselfwith the mag-
neticaxis formedby the north/southmagneticfield of the earth.

VarerATrrf N
The angular difference between the true and magnetic poles at a given point is referred
to as variation. Since most aviation charts are oriented to true north and the aircraft com-
pass is oriented to magnetic north, you must convert a true direction to a magnetic direc-
tion by correcting for the variation. The amount of variation you need to apply is
dependent upon your location on the earth's surface. [Figure 2-9O]
 FIIeTTT I NSTRUMENTS
EiEtrTIEN tr

Figure2-90'Variation at thispointin thewesternunitedstatesis 17'.sincethe magnetic

eastof thetruenorthpolein relationto thispoint,thevariation northpoleis locatedto the
is easterly.
when the magnetic polefallsto the westof the
truepole,variation
is westerly. lsogoniclinesconnectpoints*nere ine variationis equal,whilethe agonic
pointswherethevariation linedefinesthe
is zero.

DevtATtrf N
Deviation refers to a compass error which occur due to disturbances
from magnetic
fields produced by metals and electrical accessorieswithin
the airplane itself. Although
it cannot be completely eliminated, deviation error can be
decreasedby manufacturer-
installed compensating magnets located within the compass
housing. The remaining
error is recorded on a chart, called a compass correction "uid",
which is mounted near the

whethertheaircraftradiosWereonoroffwhen$ i
the deviation was calculated. you should take .i
the proper amount of deviation into account i
when you read the compass. [Figure 2-91.] ,'

FOR (MH)

srEER (CH)

RADto
oFFr
Figure2'[Link] thiscompasscorrection card,thedeviation
variesbetween0" [Link] example,
ify_ouwantto fly a magnetic
heading(MH)of 060o,thecompassheading(cH) arsois 060';to fly
180"magnetic, youmustfly a compbssheadingoi 1gg..
2-71
tr HAPTE R 2 [Link] Siystevs

EnMFAsisi tnnnntgi
Although you can correct for variation and deviation, the compass is susceptible
to other
types of errors which, although predictable, can make it difficult to use. Foi example,
the
freedom of movement necessary for the compass to orient itself to magnetic north
makes
it sensitive to in-flight turbulence. In light turbulence, you may be able to use the
com-
pass by averaging the readings. For instance, if the "o-pu6 swings between
030o to
060o,you can estimate an approximate heading of [Link] heavier turbulence, however,
the compass can be of very little use. Even in smooth air, additional errors can
occur
while you are turning or changing speed due to a phenomenon known as magnetic
dip.

Me,gNETlE Dtr:
When the bar magnet contained in the compass is pulled by the earth's magnetic
field, it
tends to point north and somewhat downward. The dor,vnward pull, cal-ted magnetic
dip, is greatest near the poles and diminishes as you approach the equator.
[Figup z-gz]

Magnetic
North Pole

Magnetic
Field

Magnetic
Dip

Magnetic
Field

Magnetic
South Pole

Figure 2-92. Althoughthe compassis not subjectto magneticdip near the equator,as
the com-
pass movescloserto the poles errorsresultingfrom magneticdip increasegradualiy.
Within
approximately300 milesof eithermagneticpole,these errorsare so greatthat use of the
com-
pass for navigationis impractical.

In order to minimize the tilting force on the bar magnet caused by magnetic dip,
a weight
is placed on the side nearest the equator. For aircraft th"t fly in the northern hemisphere,
the weight is placed on the south end of the bar magnet. Unfortunately, the
corJective
weight, as well as magnetic dip itself, both contribute to acceleration ani turning
errors.
Flrent lNsreuMENTs EiEtrTIEN tr

AcGELEFUATIEN ERegp
If you accelerate or decelerate an airplane on an easterly or westerly heading, an erro-
neous indication will occur. As you accelerate an airplane, inertia causes the compass
weight on the south end of the bar magnet to lag slightly and turn the compass toward
the north. During a deceleration, inertia causes the weight to move slightly ahead, which
moves the compass toward a southerly heading
even though no change of direction has taken
place. The compass will return to its previous,
and proper, heading once the acceleration or
deceleration subsides.

Acceleration error is more pronounced as you

move closer to due east or west. The error
doesn't occur when you €re flying on a directly
north or south heading because the bar magnet
weight is in line with the direction of travel. In addition, these acceleration errors are valid
only for the northern hemisphere. The effects are reversed in the southern hemisphere.
The memory aid, ANDS (Accelerate North, Decelerate South), may help you recall how
acceleration error affects the compass in the northern hemisphere. [Figure 2-93]

Figure [Link] accelerationerror shown here is only valid in the northernhemisphere.

TUrtNINtri ERRgn
Turning error is directly related to magnetic dip; the greater the dip, the greater the turn-
ing error. It is most pronounced when you are turning to or from headings of north or
south. When you begin a turn from a heading of north, the compass initially indicates a
turn in the opposite direction. When the turn is established, the compass begins to turn
in the correct direction, but it lags behind the actual heading. The amount of lag
decreasesas the turn continues, then disappears as the airplane reaches a heading of
east or west.
 tr HAPTE R 2 AreerRNe Svsrevs

When turning from a heading of east or

west to a heading of north, there is no error
as you begin the turn. However, as the
heading approaches north, the compass
increasingly lags behind the airplane's
actual heading. When you turn from a
heading of south, the compass initially
indicates a turn in the proper direction but
Ieads the airplane's actual heading. This
error also cancels out as the airplane
reaches a heading of east or west. Turning from east or west to a heading of south causes
the compass to move correctly at the start of a turn, but then it increasingly leads the
actual heading as the airplane nears a southerly direction. [Figure 2-94]

FiEure [Link] left portionof the figureshowsthe initialtendencyof the magneticcompassin a turn from a northerly
[Link] initialturningerrorwhich occursduringturns from a southerlyheadingis shown on the right.

The amount of lead or lag is approximately

equal to the latitude of the airplane. For
example, if you are turning from a heading
of south to a heading of west while flying at
40o north latitude, the compass will rapidly
tu rn to a h e a d i n g o f 2 2 O " (1 8 0' + 40" ). A t
the midpoint of the turn, the lead will decreaseto approximately half (20"), and upon
reaching a heading of west, it will be zero. As in acceleration errors, these lead and lag
errors are only valid for flight in the northern hemisphere. Lead and lag errors in the
southern hemisphere act in the opposite directions.

EmFINtri WIrrr EnMFA,SE EnR'c:trts

Due to its potential for errors, the magnetic compass is normally used as a backup source
of heading information while the gyroscopic heading indicator is used as the primary
heading reference. If your heading indicator
fails and you understand the limitations of the
magnetic compass, you should still be able to
navigate properly. When you are referring to
the compass for heading information, remem-
ber that it is accurate only when your airplane
is in smooth air and in straight-and-level,
unaccelerated flight.
Flrerrr lNsreuMENTs SEtrTII]N tr

EiUMMARY ETTTtrKLIEIT
The airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator all use static pres-
sure. The airspeed indicator is the only instrument which uses pitot pressure.

At sea level, the standard atmosphere consists of a barometric pressure of 29.92 in.
Hg. (rOrl.2 millibars) and a temperatureof lboc (sg"F).

In the lower atmosphere (below 36,000 feet), the standard pressure Iapse rate for
each 1,000 feet of altitude is approximately 1.00 in. Hg,, and the standard temper-
ature lapse rate is 2"C (3.5"F).

The airspeed indicator is divided into color-coded arcs which define speed ranges
for different phases of flight. The upper and lower limits of the arcs correspond to
specific airspeed limitations, called V-speeds,

V6, or maneuvering speed, is the maximum speed at which you may apply full and
abrupt control movement without the possibility of causing structural damage.
Since V6 changes with aircraft weight, it is not depicted on the airspeed indicator.

Regardlessof altitude, the indicated airspeed at which a particular airplane stalls

in a specific configuration remains the same,

Indicated altitude is the altitude measured, and displayed, by your altimeter.

Pressure altitude is the vertical distance above the standard datum plane, while
density altitude corrects pre$sure altitude for nonstandard temperature. Tbue alti-
tude is the aetual height of an objeet above mean sea level. Absolute altitude is the
actual height of the airplane above the earth's surface over which it is flying.

If you fly from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure without reset-
ting your altimeter, the altimeter will indicate higher than the true altitude, Thue
altitude will he higher than indicated altitude if you do not reset your altimeter
when flying from a low pressure area to an area of high pressure.

A one ineh ehange in the altimeter setting equals 1,0CI0feet nf indieated altitude
change in the same direction.

If atmospheric temperature is higher than standard, true altitude will be higher

than your indicated altitude. In colder than standard temperatures, true altitude
will be lower than indicated altitude,

Tbend information shows an immed"iateindieation of an increase or deereasein the

airplane's rate of elimb or deseent, while rate information shows you a stabilized
rate of change,

Blockage of the pitot tuhe only affects the airspeed indicator, but a clogged statie
system affectn all three pitot-static instruments.

Rigidity in space refers to the principle that a wheel with a heavily weighted rim
spun rapidly will remain in a fixed position in the plane in whieh it is spinning,

Precession causesslow drifting and minor erroneous indieations in the gyroseopie

instruments.

The turn eoordinator typieally uses eleetrieal power while an engine-driven vae-
uum pump is used to power the attitude and heading indicators.
tr HAPTE R Z Atpellrue Svsrevs

/ The turn coordinator provides an indication of turn direetion and quality as well
as a backup source of bank information in the event of attitude indicator failure.

/ The attitude indicator uses an artificial horizon and miniature airplane to depict
the position of your airplane in relation to the true horizon.

/ Due to precession, the heading indicator must be aligned periodically with the
magnetic compass. When aligning the heading indicator, be certain you are in
straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight with the magnetic compass showing a
steady indication"

/ The magnetic compass shows a turn to the north if you accelerate an airplane in the
northern hemisphere; if you decelerate, it indicates a turn to the south. The error
d"oesn'toccur when you are flying directly on a north or south heading.

/ Turning error causes the magnetic compass to lead or lag the actual magnetic head-
ing of the airplane during turns.

Kev TERMS
International Standard Atmosphere Rate Information
(rsA)
Rigidity In Space
Standard Lapse Rates
Precession
Pitot Tube
Vacuum (Suction) System
Static Port
Standard-Rate Turn
V-Speeds
Slip
Indicated Altitude
skid
PressureAltitude
Variation
Density Altitude
Deviation
True Altitude
Magnetic Dip
Absolute Altitude

Trend Information

AuEsirtENsi
1. What is the atmospheric pressure and temperature at sea level in a standard
atmosphere?

2. Pitot pressure is used by which flight instrument(s)?

Flrerrr lNsreuMENTs EiEtrTIISN tr

3. Referring to the airspeed indicator below, identify the V-speedsassociatedwith the

colored €rrcs.

4. Which important airspeed limitation changes with aircraft weight and is not
depicted on the airspeed indicator.

Match the following types of altitude with the corresponding description.

5. PressureAltitude A. The height of the airplane above the
earth's surface
6. Density Altitude
B. The actual height of an object above
7. True Altitude mean sea level

8. Absolute Altitude C. The vertical distance above the stan-

dard datum plane

D. Pressure altitude corrected for non-

standard temperature

9 . You fly from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure but do not reset
your altimeter. If you maintain a consistent indicated altitude, will you be at your
desired altitude? Whv?

1 0 . What will the effect be on the airspeed indicator if the static system becomes
clogged, but the pitot system remains unobstructed? Why?

11.. What type of movement is depicted by the attitude indicator, but not the turn coor-
dinator?

't2. True/False. If you accelerate an airplane in the northern hemisphere on a heading

of east, your compass will indicate a turn to the south.