Module 2 Oscillators and operational amplifiers

[Link] Amplifiers:

2.1.1Symbols and connections

 The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.1

Figure 2.1 Symbol for an operational amplifier

 The device has two inputs and one output and no common
connection. In Fig. 2.1 one of the inputs is marked ‘−’ and the
other is marked ‘+’. These polarity markings have nothing to
do with the supply connections – they indicate the overall
phase shift between each input and the output. The ‘+’ sign
indicates zero phase shift while the ‘−’ sign indicates 180°
phase shift.
 Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted waveform, the ‘−’
input is often referred to as the inverting input. Similarly, the
‘+’ input is known as the non-inverting input.
 Most of the operational amplifiers require a symmetrical
supply (of typically ±6 V to ±15 V) which allows the output
voltage to swing both positive (above 0 V) and negative (below
0 V).
 Fig. 2.2 shows how the supply connections for an
operational amplifier.

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Figure 2.2 Supply connections for an operational amplifier

2.1.2Operational amplifier parameters

Some of the terms and parameters of operational amplifier are

discussed as follows:

a) Open-loop voltage gain

 The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is
defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
measured with no feedback applied.
 Open-loop voltage gain of the device is given by:
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐴𝑉(𝑂𝐿) =
𝑉𝐼𝑁
where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the
output and input voltages, respectively, under open-loop
conditions.

 In linear voltage amplifying applications, a large amount of

negative feedback will normally be applied and the open-loop

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voltage gain can be thought of as the internal voltage gain

provided by the device.
 The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB)
rather than as a ratio. Thus:

(𝑂𝐿)=20 log 10 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇

𝑉𝐼𝑁

 Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of

90 dB or more.
b) Closed-loop voltage gain
 The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is
defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to
the input (i.e. with feedback applied).
 The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop
voltage gain to a value that is both predictable and
manageable.
 Practical closed-loop voltage gains range from one to several
thousand but note that high values of voltage gain may make
unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth.
 Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage but with negative feedback applied,
hence:

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐴𝑉(𝐶𝐿) =
𝑉𝐼𝑁

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where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the
output and input voltages, respectively, under closed-loop
conditions.

 The closed-loop voltage gain is normally very much less than

the open-loop voltage gains.

Example 2.1

An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback

produces an output voltage of 2 V when supplied with an input of
400 μV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.

Solution

Now:

c) Input resistance
 The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as
the ratio of input voltage to input current expressed in ohms.
 The input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much
dependent on the semiconductor technology employed.
 In practice values range from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar

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types to over 1012 Ω for FET and CMOS devices.

 Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current:
𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝐼𝑁 =
𝐼𝐼𝑁

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where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN is the input voltage
(in volts) and IIN is the input current (in amps).

Example 2.2

An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ.

Determine the input current when an input voltage of 5 mV is
present.

Solution

𝑉𝐼𝑁
Now: 𝑅𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝐼𝑁

Thus,

𝑉𝐼𝑁 5𝑋10−3
𝐼𝐼𝑁 = =
𝑅𝐼𝑁 2𝑋106
= 2.5X10−9 A = 2.5nA
d) Output resistance
 The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined
as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit
output current expressed in ohms.
 Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10
Ω to around 100 Ω, depending upon the configuration and
amount of feedback employed.
 Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage
to short-circuit output current, hence:
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇(𝑂𝐶)
𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑇 =
𝐼𝑂𝑈𝑇(𝑂𝐶)

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where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), VOUT(OC) is the

open-circuit output voltage (in volts) and IOUT(SC) is the short-
circuit output current (in amps).

e) Input offset voltage

 An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output
voltage when 0V difference is applied to its inputs.
 In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be
some small voltage present at the output.
 The voltage that must be applied differentially to the
operational amplifier input in order to make the output
voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
 Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively
large amounts of negative feedback or by using the offset null
facility provided by a number of operational amplifier devices.
 Typical values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV to 15
mV.
f) Full-power bandwidth
 The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is
equivalent to the frequency at which the maximum
undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-
frequency (d.c.) value.
 Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1
MHz for some high-speed devices.
g) Slew rate
 Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time,
when a rectangular step input voltage is applied (as shown in
Fig. 2.3).

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Figure 2.3 Slew rate for an operational amplifier

 The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change

of output voltage with time in response to a perfect step-
△𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
function input. Hence: 𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
△𝑡

where △ 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is the change in output voltage (in volts) and △ 𝑡 is

the corresponding interval of time (in seconds).

 Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values

range from 0.2 V/μs to over 20 V/μs.
 Slew rate imposes a limitation on circuits in which large
amplitude pulses rather than small amplitude sinusoidal
signals are likely to be encountered.

2.1.3 Operational amplifier characteristics

The following are the operational amplifier characteristics:

(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).

(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).

(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).

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(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.

(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.

(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

 The characteristics of most modern integrated circuit

operational amplifiers (i.e. ‘real’ operational amplifiers) come
very close to those of an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier, as
witnessed by the data shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for

‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices
Parameter Ideal Real
Voltage gain Infinite 100,000
Input resistance Infinite 100 MΩ
Output resistance Zero 20 Ω
Bandwidth Infinite 2 MHz
Slew rate Infinite 10 V/μs
Input offset Zero Less than 5 mV

Example 2.3
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational
amplifier. If it takes 4 μs for the output voltage to change from –5
V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the device.
Solution
The slew rate can be determined from:
△ Vout 10V
slew rate = = = 2.5𝑉/𝜇𝑠
△𝑡 4µs

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Example 2.4

A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/μs. If the

amplifier is used in a circuit with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect
step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time
taken for the output to change level.

Solution

The output voltage change will be 20 × 100 = 2,000 mV (or 2 V).

Re-arranging the formula for slew rate gives:
2𝑉
△ 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
△𝑡 = = 0.133 𝜇𝑠
=
15𝑉/𝜇𝑠
Slew rate

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2.1.4 Operational amplifier configurations

 The three basic configurations for operational voltage

amplifiers, together with the expressions for their voltage
gain, are shown in Fig. 1.36.

Figure 2.4 The three basic configurations for operational voltage

amplifiers
 All of the amplifier circuits described previously have used
direct coupling and thus have frequency response
characteristics that extend to d.c.
 This, of course, is undesirable for many applications,
particularly where a wanted a.c. signal may be superimposed
on an unwanted d.c. voltage level or when the bandwidth of
the amplifier greatly exceeds that of the signal that it is
required to amplify.
 In such cases, capacitors of appropriate value may be
inserted in series with the input resistor, R IN, and in parallel
with the feedback resistor, RF, as shown in Fig. 1.37. 

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Figure 2.5 Adding capacitors to modify the frequency response of an

inverting operational amplifier
 The value of the input and feedback capacitors, CIN and CF
respectively, are chosen so as to roll-off the frequency
response of the amplifier at the desired lower and upper cut-
off frequencies, respectively.
 The effect of these two capacitors on an operational
amplifier’s frequency response is shown in Fig. 1.38.

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Figure 2.6 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the
frequency response of an operational amplifier
 By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the frequency
response of an inverting operational voltage amplifier may be
very easily tailored to suit a particular set of requirements.
 The lower cut-off frequency is determined by the value of the
input capacitance, CIN, and input resistance, RIN. The lower
cut-off frequency is given by:

1 0.159
𝑓1 = =
2𝜋𝐶𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝐶𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐼𝑁

where f1 is the lower cut-off frequency in hertz, C IN is in farads and

RIN is in ohms.

 Provided the upper frequency response it not limited by the

gain × bandwidth product, the upper cut-off frequency will be
determined by the feedback capacitance, C F, and feedback
resistance, RF, such that:

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1 0.159
𝑓2 = =
2𝜋𝐶𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝐶𝐹 𝑅𝐹

where f2 is the upper cut-off frequency in hertz, CF is in farads and

R2 is in ohms.

Example 2.5

An inverting operational amplifier is to operate according to the

following specification: Voltage gain = 100, Input resistance (at
mid-band) = 10 kΩ, Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz, Upper cut-
off frequency = 15 kHz. Devise a circuit to satisfy the above
specification using an operational amplifier.

Solution

To make things a little easier, we can break the problem down into
manageable parts. We shall base our circuit on a single operational
amplifier configured as an inverting amplifier with capacitors to
define the upper and lower cut-off frequencies, as shown in Fig.
8.9. The nominal input resistance is the same as the value for RIN.
Thus: RIN = 10 kΩ

To determine the value of RF we can make use of the formula for

mid-band voltage gain:

Av =R1/R2

thus R2 = Av × R1 = 100 × 10 kΩ = 100 kΩ To determine the value

of CIN we will use the formula for the low-frequency cut-off:

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For most applications the nearest preferred values (68 nF for CIN
and 100 pF for CF) would be perfectly adequate. The complete
circuit of the operational amplifier stage is shown in Fig. 1.39.

Figure 2.7 See Example 1.13. This operational amplifier has a mid-
band voltage gain of 10 over the frequency range 250 Hz to 15 kHz

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2.1.5Operational amplifier circuits

 As well as their application as a general-purpose amplifying

device, operational amplifiers have a number of other uses,
including Voltage follower, Differentiator, Integrator,
Comparator and Summing amplifier.
1. Voltage follower
 A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in
Fig. 2.8.

Figure 2.8 A voltage follower

 This circuit is essentially an inverting amplifier in which

100% of the output is fed back to the input.
 The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e.
unity), a very high input resistance and a very high output
resistance.
 This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for
matching a high-impedance circuit to a low-impedance
circuit.
 Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage follower are
shown in Fig. 2.8.
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Figure 2.8 Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage

follower
 The input and output waveforms are both in-phase (they rise
and fall together) and that they are identical in amplitude.

2. Differentiator
 A differentiator using an operational amplifier is shown in
Fig. 2.9.

Figure 2.9 A differentiator

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 A differentiator produces an output voltage that is equivalent

to the rate of change of its input.
 In mathematics, this is equivalent to the differential function.
 Typical input and output waveforms for a differentiator are
shown in Fig. 1.43.

Figure 2.10 Typical input and output waveforms for a

differentiator

 The square wave input is converted to a train of short

duration pulses at the output.
 the output waveform is inverted because the signal has been
applied to the inverting input of the operational amplifier.

3. Integrator
 An integrator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.
2.11.

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Figure 2.11 An integrator

 This circuit provides the opposite function to that of a

differentiator in that its output is equivalent to the area under
the graph of the input function rather than its rate of change.
 If the input voltage remains constant (and is other than 0 V)
the output voltage will ramp up or down according to the
polarity of the input.
 Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator are
shown in Fig. 2.12.

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Figure 2.12 Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator

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 The square wave input is converted to a wave that has a

triangular shape and the output waveform is inverted.

4. Comparator
 A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.
2.14.

Figure 2.14 A comparator

 Since no negative feedback has been applied, the circuit uses

the maximum gain of the operational amplifier.
 The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will
thus rise to the maximum possible value (equal to the positive
supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the non-
inverting input exceeds that present at the inverting input.
 Conversely, the output voltage produced by the operational
amplifier will fall to the minimum possible value (equal to the
negative supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at
the inverting input exceeds that present at the non-inverting
input.
 Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator are
shown in Fig. 2.14.

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Figure 2.15 Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator

 The output is either +15 V or –15 V depending on the relative

polarity of the two inputs.
 A typical application for a comparator is that of comparing a
signal voltage with a reference voltage.
 The output will go high (or low) in order to signal the result
of the comparison.

5. Summing amplifiers

 A summing amplifier using an operational amplifier is shown

in Fig. 2.16.

Figure 2.16 A summing amplifier

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 This circuit produces an output that is the sum of its two

input voltages.
 The input is connected to inverting terminal, so the output
voltage is given by:

VOUT = – (V1 + V2)

where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that all of the resistors
used in the circuit have the same value).

 Typical input and output waveforms for a summing amplifier

are shown in Fig. 2.17.

Figure 2.17 Typical input and output waveforms for a summing

amplifier
 A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input signals to
produce an output voltage that is the sum of the two.

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1.2 Oscillators:

1.2.1 Positive feedback

 An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back
in such a way as to reinforce the input (rather than to
subtract from it), is known as positive feedback.
 Fig. 2.17 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with
positive feedback applied.

Figure 2.17 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

 The amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback

network provides a further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift
is 0°.
 The overall gain, G, is given by:
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐺=
𝑉𝐼𝑁
 By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,
𝑉′𝐼𝑁 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁 + 𝛽𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
Thus:
𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 𝑉′𝐼𝑁 − 𝛽𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
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and

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝐴𝑉𝑋 𝑉𝐼𝑁

Where 𝐴𝐴 is the internal gain of the [Link]:
Overall gain,
𝐴𝑉 𝑋 𝑉′𝐼𝑁 𝐴𝑉 𝑋 𝑉′𝐼𝑁
𝐺= -
𝑉′𝐼𝑁− 𝛽𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑉′𝐼𝑁− 𝛽(𝐴𝑉 𝑋 𝑉′𝐼𝑁)

Thus,
𝐴𝑉
𝐺=

1 − 𝛽 𝐴𝑉
 When the loop gain, 𝛽𝐴𝑉, approaches unity (i.e. when the
loop gain is just less than 1). The denominator (1 − βAv) will
become close to zero.
 This will have the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e. the
overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater
than the gain without feedback.

1.2.2 Conditions for oscillation

The following are the conditions for oscillation:
(a) The feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must
arrive back in-phase with the signal at the input).

(b) The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the
amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to overcome the losses
associated with any frequency selective feedback network).

 Hence, to create an oscillator an amplifier needs a sufficient

gain to overcome the losses of the network that provide
positive feedback.

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1.2.3 Ladder network oscillator

 A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three stage C–R

ladder network is shown in Fig. 2.18.

Figure 2.18 Sine wave oscillator based on a three stage C–R

ladder network

 TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier

stage with R1 and R2 providing base bias potential and R3
and C1 providing emitter stabilization.
 The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder network
(connected between collector and base) is 180° at the
frequency of oscillation.
 The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to
realize an overall phase shift of 360° or 0°.
 The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.18
is given by:
𝐴𝑉
𝐺=

1 − 𝛽 Av

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f=
2𝜋 𝑋 √6 𝐶𝑅

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 The loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the
amplifier must provide a gain of at least 29 in order for the
circuit to oscillate.

Example 2.6

Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three stage ladder

network oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.

Solution

1.2.4 Wien bridge oscillator

 An alternative approach to providing the phase shift required

is the use of a Wien bridge network (Fig. 2.19).

Figure 2.19 A Wien bridge network

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 The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is

taken from C and D.
 At one particular frequency, the phase shift produced by the
network will be exactly zero (i.e. the input and output signals
will be in-phase).
 The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is
given by:
𝐶1 𝑅2
𝐴𝑉 = 1 +
+
𝐶2 R1
 In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum
amplifier gain will be 3.
 The frequency at which the phase shift will be zero is given
by:

1
𝑓=

2 𝜋 √R1 R2 C1 C2
when R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 the frequency at which the phase
shift will be zero will be given by:

1
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝑋 √𝐶2𝑅2
where R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C2.

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Example 2.7

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Figure 2.20 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien bridge network

Fig. 2.20 shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an
operational amplifier. If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the output
frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1
kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.

Solution

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