1 Chapter 3.

1: Definition of the Derivative

1.1 Introduction to Derivatives
In calculus, the derivative is a fundamental concept that measures how a function changes as its input
changes. More precisely, the derivative of a function at a point gives the rate of change of the function at
that point. It can be interpreted geometrically as the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function
at the specific point.

1.2 Instantaneous Rate of Change

Consider a function f (x) that describes some quantity. The instantaneous rate of change of f (x) at a point
x = a refers to how quickly f (x) is changing at that exact moment. This is different from the average rate of
change over an interval, which is given by the difference in the values of the function divided by the difference
in inputs.

1.3 Formal Definition of the Derivative

The derivative of a function f (x) at a point x = a is defined as the following limit (if it exists):

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
This is the formal definition of the derivative, the limit of the difference quotient. Here:

• f ′ (a) is the derivative of f (x) at x = a.

• h represents a small change in x, and as h → 0, we are measuring the rate of change at a single point.

If this limit exists, we say that f (x) is differentiable at x = a.

1.4 Example
Let f (x) = x2 , and we want to find f ′ (x). Then:

(x + h)2 − x2 x2 + 2hx + h2 − x2 2xh + h2

f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

Thus, the derivative of f (x) = x2 is f ′ (x) = 2x.

1.5 Example (Not Differentiable)

Consider the absolute value function f (x) = |x|. This function is continuous at x = 0, but not differentiable
at x = 0. Here, we will show why this is the case. By definition:

f (0 + h) − f (0) |h|
f ′ (0) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h

Now, observe that when h > 0, it holds that |h| |h|

h = 1, whereas when h < 0, it holds that h = −1. As
−1 ̸= 1, the limit does not exist, and therefore consequently, the function f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at
x = 0.

1
1.6 Exercises
Question 1: Find the derivatives of the following functions using the definition of the derivative.

(a) f (x) = 2x
(b) f (x) = −2
(c) f (x) = x3 − 2
(d) f (x) = 2x2 + x − 1
√
(e) f (x) = x
(f) f (x) = 5x + 7
1
(g) f (x) = x2
x
(h) f (x) = x+1
√
(i) f (x) = 3x − 4
1
Question 2: Is the function f (x) = x differentiable at x = 0? Why, or why not?

Question 3: Is the following function differentiable at x = 0? Justify your answer.

(
x2 if x ≥ 0
f (x) =
−x2 if x < 0

Question 4: A car’s position along a straight road is given by s(t) = 4t3 −2t2 +t where s(t) is distance
in meters and t is time in seconds. Find the velocity of the car at t = 2 by finding the derivative of
s(t). Find out at what time the car’s velocity is zero (Hint: set the derivative equal to zero and solve
for t).

2 Chapter 3.2: Derivatives of Common Functions

2.1 Notation
Derivative of a function f (x) is notated as f ′ (x). However, some other common notations include, but are
not limited to, the following:

• d
dx f (x)

• Df (x)

• ∂f (x)

2.2 Basic Rules for Differentiation

Before diving into the derivatives of specific functions, the following basic rules of differentiation need to be
covered:

• d
dx c = 0 for any constant c ∈ R

• d
dx cf (x)
d
= c dx f (x) = c · f ′ (x)

• Power rule: d n
dx x = nxn−1

• d
dx (f (x) ± g(x)) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x)

• Product rule: d
dx [f (x)g(x)] = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x)

2
 d f (x) f ′ (x)g(x)−f (x)g ′ (x)
• Quotient rule:


dx g(x) = [g(x)]2

• Chain rule: d
dx f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)

For example, the rules above can be used to find the derivative of a polynomial. As an example, take
f (x) = −2x2 + x3 − 5x + 4:
d d d 3 d d
f ′ (x) = (−2x2 + x3 − 5x + 4) = (−2x2 ) + x − 5x + 4
dx dx dx dx dx
d 2 d 3 d
= −2 x + x − 5 x + 0 = −4x + 3x2 − 5
dx dx dx
Thus f ′ (x) = −4x + 3x2 − 5. The power rule also applies for √
non-integer exponents, so it can be used to
differentiate radical functions as well. For example, take g(x) = x. Then:
d √ d 1 1 1 1 1 1
g ′ (x) = x= x 2 = x 2 −1 = x− 2 = √
dx dx 2 2 2 x
√
so the derivative of g(x) = x is g ′ (x) = 1
√
2 x
.

2.3 Derivatives of Common Functions

2.3.1 Exponential Functions
Generally, an exponential function f (x) = ax for a > 0 is differentiated as f ′ (x) = dx
d x
a = ax ln(a). If
′
f (x) = e , the derivative is simply f (x) = e as ln(e) = 1. For another example, consider g(x) = 2x . In
x x

this case, g ′ (x) = dx

d
(2x ) = 2x ln(2).

2.3.2 Logarithmic Functions

The derivative of a logarithmic function defined as f (x) = loga (x) (where a > 0) is defined as: f ′ (x) =
d 1 ′ 1
dx (loga (x)) = x ln(a) . For the special case f (x) = ln(x), the derivative is f (x) = x because ln(e) = 1.
′ 1
For another example, consider g(x) = log2 (x). Then g (x) = x ln(2) .

2.3.3 Trigonometric Functions

The derivatives of basic trigonometric functions are defined as follows:

• d
dx sin(x) = cos(x)

• d
dx cos(x) = − sin(x)

• d
dx tan(x) = sec2 (x)

• d
dx cot(x) = − csc2 (x)

• d
dx sec(x) = sec(x) tan(x)

• d
dx csc(x) = − csc(x) cot(x)

3
2.3.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions are:

• d
dx arcsin(x) = √ 1
1−x2

• d
dx
1
arccos(x) = − √1−x 2

• d
dx arctan(x) = 1
1+x2

• d
dx arccot(x)
1
= − 1+x 2

• d
dx arcsec(x) = √1
|x| x2 −1

• d
dx arccsc(x) = − |x|√1x2 −1

2.3.5 Hyperbolic Functions

The derivatives of the hyperbolic functions are:

• d
dx sinh(x) = cosh(x)

• d
dx cosh(x) = sinh(x)

• d
dx tanh(x) = sech2 (x)

2.4 Examples
Using the rules introduced, let’s find the derivatives of the following functions:

(a) f (x) = e3x+2

(b) g(x) = − ln(cos(x))

x2 +1
(c) h(x) = 3−x

For (a), the rule for exponential functions as well as the chain rule must be implemented. Thus:
d 3x+2 d
e f ′ (x) =
= ( (3x + 2))e3x+2 = 3e3x+2
dx dx
For (b), the rule for exponential functions, trigonometric functions, as well as the chain rule is used:

d d 1
1
sin(x)
g ′ (x) = (− ln(cos(x))) = ( cos(x)) · − = − sin(x) · − = = tan(x)
dx dx cos(x) cos(x) cos(x)

For (c), the power rule and the quotient rule can be used:
d d
( dx (x2 + 1)) · (3 − x) − (x2 + 1) · ( dx (3 − x)) −x2 + 6x + 1
h′ (x) = =
(3 − x)2 (3 − x)2

4
2.5 Exercises
Question 1: Find the derivatives of the following functions using the rules of differentiation:

(a) f (x) = x2 − x5
sin(t2 )
(b) d(t) = t+5
(c) g(x) = log2 (x3 − 1)
p
(d) h(x) = 3 x2 + ln(2x + 1)
√
(e) f (p) = p3 + p + 1 − p1
(f) s(t) = tan(csc(sin(t)))
(g) r(t) = t2 ln(t) + sin(t) cos(t)
1
(h) t(x) = x cos(x) − 3x+5
(i) d(t) = 2t2 (ln(t) + log2 (t))

Question 2: Let f (x) = x2 + ax. What is the value of a is f ′ (1) = 1? Show your work.
 √ 
Question 3: What is the derivative of f (x) = x3 − x2 x − x2 ? Find the derivative using the
product rule, and without the product rule.

3 Chapter 3.3: Higher Order Derivatives

3.1 Definition
The n derivative of a function f (x) is a function f (n) (x) that has been obtained from f (x) by taking the
th

derivative the total of n times.

For example, let f (x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1. Then, as we know, the first derivative is:
d
f ′ (x) = (3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1) = 9x2 + 4x + 1
dx
As f ′ (x) = 9x2 + 4x + 1, the second derivative can be found as:
d ′ d
f (2) (x) = f ′′ (x) =
f (x) = (9x2 + 4x + 1) = 18x + 4.
dx dx
Similarly, the third derivative is defined as:
d ′′ d
f (3) (x) = f ′′′ (x) = f (x) = (18x + 4) = 18
dx dx
And finally, the fourth derivative is:
d ′′′ d
f (4) (x) = f ′′′′ (x) =
f (x) = (18) = 0
dx dx
After the fourth derivative, all the consecutive derivatives are 0, as the function has vanished.

3.2 Exercises
Question 1: Determine the first and the second derivative of each of the following functions:

(a) f (x) = x3 − x2
(b) g(x) = ln(x)
(c) h(x) = x cos(x)

5
 Question 2: How many times do you need to differentiate the function f (x) = 2xn + x2 + 100 until
it vanishes? Why? Show your work.
Question 3: Find the first, second, third, and fourth derivatives of each of the following functions.
Do they vanish? Why, or why not?

(a) f (x) = cos3 (2x)

(b) g(x) = 8 ln(x + 1)
√
(c) h(x) = 3x2 + x
(d) d(t) = −12t3 + t
2
(e) u(t) = t3 −t2

4 Chapter 3.4: The Mean Value Theorem

4.1 Statement and Definition
The Mean Value Theorem applies to any function f (x) that satisfies two conditions on a closed interval [a, b]:

• It is continuous on [a, b].

• It is differentiable on (a, b).

If these conditions are met, then the Mean Value Theorem guarantees that there exists at least one point
c ∈ (a, b) such that the derivative of the function at c equals the average rate of change of the function over
the interval [a, b]. Mathematically, this can be stated as follows:

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
where c is some point in the interval (a, b).
Observe that if either of the two conditions; the continuity or the differentiabiliy, are violated, the Mean
Value Theorem does not necessarily hold.

4.2 Example
Visually, the Mean Value Theorem can be interpreted and understood as shown in the following figure for
the function f (x) = x2 (on the interval [1, 4]):

Observe the following:

6
 • The secant line connects the points (1, f (1)) and (4, f (4)), representing the average rate of change over
the interval.
• The tangent line at c = 2.5 has the same slope as the secant line, showing the instantaneous rate of
change at that point.

4.3 Exercises
Question 1: Consider the function f (x) = ln(x) over the interval [1, e].

(a) What is the average rate of change of f (x) over the interval [1, e]?
(b) Find a point c ∈ (1, e) where the instantaneous rate of change of f (x) is equal to the average rate
of change.

Question 2: Consider the function f (x) = x3 − 2x + 1 on the interval [0, 2]. Verify that the mean
value theorem holds on the given interval.

Question 3: Let f (x) = sin(x) and consider the interval [0, π].

(a) Find the average rate of change of f (x) over the given interval.
(b) Use the Mean Value Theorem to determine the value of c ∈ (0, π) where the derivative of f (x)
equals the average rate of change.

5 Chapter 3.5: Monotonicity Using Derivatives

5.1 Introduction to Monotonicity
Monotonicity refers to the behavior of a function in terms of whether it is consistently increasing or
decreasing over its domain. In calculus, monotonicity is often analyzed using the concepts of derivatives.

• A function is monotonically increasing on a given interval if, for any two points x1 and x2 in the
interval where x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ). Additionally, the function is strictly increasing if
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
• A function is monotonically decreasing on a given interval if, for any two points x1 and x2 in the
interval where x1 < x2 , we have f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ). Additionally, the function is strictly decreasing if
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).

• A function is strictly monotone if it is only strictly increasing or only strictly decreasing.

5.2 Connection Between Derivatives and Monotonicity

The derivative of a function f (x) (namely, f ′ (x)), provides information abut the rate of change of the
function at any point. By examining the sign of the derivative, we can infer whether a function is
increasing or decreasing.

• If f ′ (a) > 0, the function is increasing at x = a.

• If f ′ (a) < 0, the function is decreasing at x = a.
• If f ′ (x) = 0, the function has a horizontal tangent at that point, which can indicate a local maximum,
local minimum, or a point of inflection. This will be discussed more in the following chapters.

7
 5.3 Formal Definition
Let f (x) be a differentiable function on an interval I.

• The function f (x) is monotonically increasing on I if f ′ (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ I. Additionally, if f ′ (x) > 0
for all x ∈ I, it is strictly increasing.
• The function f (x) is monotonically decreasing on I if f ′ (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ I. Additionally, if f ′ (x) < 0
for all x ∈ I, it is strictly decreasing.

• If f ′ (x) = 0 throughout the interval, the function is constant on that given interval.

5.4 Critical Points

By definition, the critical points of a function f (x) are all points x such that f ′ (x) = 0 or f ′ (x) is undefined
for the given point.

5.5 Examples
3 2
Consider the function f (x) = x − 3x + 2. We will determine the intervals where f (x) is increasing and
decreasing based on its derivative.
First, the derivative is f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x according to the power rule. To find the critical points, the
equation f ′ (x) = 0 must be solved. Namely,

3x2 − 6x = 0 ⇒ 3x(x − 2) = 0

which gives the solutions x = 0 and x = 2. Now, we can consider the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, 2), and (2, +∞).
We must take test points from each interval to determine whether f (x) is increasing or decreasing on each
of the intervals. We do this as follows:

• Consider x = −1 in (−∞, 0). Observe that f ′ (−1) = 9 > 0, so the function is increasing on this
interval.
• Consider x = 1 in (0, 2). As f ′ (1) = −3 < 0, the function is decreasing on this interval.

• For x = 3 in (2, +∞), f ′ (3) = 9 > 0, so the function is increasing on this interval.

In conclusion, the function is increasing on (−∞, 0) and (2, +∞). It is decreasing on the interval (0, 2).

5.6 Exercises
Question 1: For the following functions, find their critical points and use them to determine where
the function is increasing or decreasing.

(a) f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 4

(b) f (x) = −x2 + 4x − 1
(c) f (x) = ln(x)
(d) f (x) = e−x
(e) f (x) = x4 − 4x3

Question 2: For the following functions, determine their behavior as x → +∞ and x → −∞. In
other words, determine if the function is increasing or decreasing at large values of x.

(a) f (x) = ln(x2 + 1)

x2
(b) f (x) = x+1

8
 1
(c) f (x) = x
(d) f (x) = x + 2x3 − x6
5

Question 3: For the following functions, find the critical points and then determine where the functions
are increasing or decreasing.

(a) f (x) = x2 ln(x)

(b) f (x) = x3 − 3x
1
(c) f (x) = x2 +1
3
(d) f (x) = 5x − 15x

Question 4: Is the function f (x) = |x| monotone? Why or why not?

6 Chapter 3.6: Extreme Points

6.1 Extreme Points
In calculus, the term extreme points refers to the points on a function where the function attains either a
local maximum or a local minimum. These points are important because they represent the highest and
lowest values within a given region, and they play a significant role in optimization problems.

• A local maximum is a point where the function has a value greater than or equal to the values of
the function at nearby points.
• A local minimum is a point where the function has a value smaller than or equal to the values of the
function at nearby points.

In addition, extreme points can also be classified either as global (absolute) maxima or global
(absolute) minima, which represent the highest or lowest value of the function over its entire domain.

6.2 Formal Definition

• Local Maximum: A point x = c is a local maximum of f (x) if there exists some interval (a, b) around
c such that for all x in (a, b), f (c) ≥ f (x).
• Local Minimum: A point x = c is a local minimum of f (x) if there exists some interval (a, b) around
c such that for all x in (a, b), f (c) ≤ f (x).

• Global (Absolute) Maximum: The function attains a global maximum at x = c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for
all x in the domain of f .
• Global (Absolute) Minimum: The function attains a global minimum at x = c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for
all x in the domain of f .

6.3 Steps to Find Extreme Points

As an example, consider the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2. Here, we find the extreme points of f (x) step by
step.
First, the derivative of f (x) is f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x. The critical points can be found by setting f ′ (x) = 0.
Namely,

3x2 − 6x = 0 ⇒ 3x(x − 2) = 0

9
which gives the critical points x = 0 and x = 2. By considering the intervals (−∞, 0), (0, 2), and (2, +∞),
we can pick a test point from each interval to find out whether f (x) is increasing or decreasing on each of
the intervals. We did this in the previous chapter.

As f (x) is increasing on (−∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, 2), it has a global maximum at x = 0. It can
similarly be argued that it has a global minimum at x = 2. However, f (x) does not have a local minimum
or maximum, as it diverges to negative infinity and positive infinity for x → −∞ and x → +∞ respectively.

6.4 Another Example

2
Consider f (x) = ex . In order to determine its global and local extrema, we first find the derivative of f (x):

d x2 2
f ′ (x) = (e ) = 2xex
dx
2 2
To find the critical points, consider the equation 2xex = 0. As ex > 0 for all real values of x, the only
solution to this equation is x = 0, meaning that x = 0 is the only critical point.
Moreover, it can be observed that f (x) is strictly decreasing for values before x = 0, and strictly increasing
after, meaning that x = 0 is a global minimum as well as a local minimum.

6.5 Exercises
Question 1: For each of the following functions, find the critical points, and determine the nature of
the extreme points (i.e., whether they are local or global extrema, as well as whether they are minimum
or maximum points) using the first or second derivative.

(a) f (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 7

(b) f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x
(c) f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 6x2 − 8x
(d) f (x) = xe−x

Question 2: For each of the following functions, use the first derivative to classify the critical points
as either local maxima or local minima.

(a) f (x) = x2 ln(x)

(b) f (x) = ln(x) + 2x

10
 (c) f (x) = x4 − 4x2 + 2
(d) f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 1

Question 3: A company’s profit is modeled according to the function P (x) = 10x − 0.5x2 where x is
the number of units sold. Find the number of units that maximizes the profit.
Question 4: The height h(t) of a projectile is modeled according to h(t) = −16t2 + 64t + 100, where
t is the time in seconds. Find the time at which the projectile reaches its maximum height.

7 Chapter 3.7: Inflection Points and Curve Sketching

7.1 Introduction to Inflection Points
An inflection point is a point on the curve of a function where the concavity changes. In other words, the
graph switches from being concave up to concave down, or visa versa. As an example, f (x) = x2 is concave
up, and f (x) = −x2 is concave down.

At an inflection point, the function is not necessarily at a local maximum or minimum, but it marks a
change in the way the graph curves.

7.2 Conditions for Inflection Points

For a function f (x) to have an inflection point at x = c, the following conditions must be satisfied:

• The function must be continuous at x = c.

• The second derivative must be equal to zero, or be undefined at x = c, i.e., f ′′ (c) = 0, or f ′′ (c) does
not exist.
• The concavity must change around x = c. That is, f ′′ (x) changes its sign as x passes through c.

7.3 Second Derivative and Concavity

The second derivative of a function provides information about the concavity of a graph as follows:

• If f ′′ (x) > 0, the graph of f (x) is concave up.

• If f ′′ (x) < 0, the graph of f (x) is concave down.
• If f ′′ (x) = 0, the concavity may change, but you must check the sign of f ′′ (x) on either side of x = c
to confirm if there is a change in concavity, i.e., an inflection point.

11
 7.4 Finding Inflection Points
As an example, consider the function f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x. To find its inflection points, we first must find
its second derivative. Observe that f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9, and therefore f ′′ (x) = 6x − 12. Then, we can set
f ′′ (x) = 0 to find the inflection points, i.e., 6x − 12 = 0 ⇒ x = 2.
Now, we must test the intervals around x = 2. For x = 1, it holds that f ′′ (1) = −6, which is negative,
meaning that the graph is concave down. Similarly, for x = 3 it can be observed that f ′′ (3) = 6, which is
positive, meaning that the graph is concave up.
As a conclusion, since the concavity changes from concave down to concave up at x = 2, there must be an
inflection point at x = 2.
Try It Yourself: Consider the function f (x) = x4 − 4x2 + 6x2 − 8x. Show that the function does not have
any inflection points.

7.5 Curve Sketching

We can use the previously learned topics of monotonicity, critical points, inflection points, and concavity to
try to sketch functions that may otherwise be challenging. You had a few practice problems previously.

7.6 Example
For this example, we consider the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x. We follow the given steps to find the
graph of f (x):

1. First, observe that the domain of f (x) consists of all real numbers.

2. Graph the x-intercepts of f (x). These can be found by solving the equation x3 − 3x2 + 2x = 0 ⇒
x(x2 − 3x + 2) = 0, giving x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2.
3. You can also find the y-intercept to help the graphing process. This is f (0) = 0, so the origin (0, 0).
4. Find the critical points. Observe that f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 2, so the critical points can be solved by
setting 3x2 − 6x + 2 = 0, which gives x = 1 ± √13 (using the quadratic formula).

5. You can now assess where f (x) is increasing and decreasing. Do you remember how to do this?

6. Inflection points of f (x) can be found using the second derivative, i.e., f ′′ (x) = 6x − 6. Setting
6x − 6 = 0 gives the inflection point x = 1.
7. Assess concavity. Do you remember how to do this?
8. Finally, you can assess the end behavior of f (x). Namely, the behavior at −∞ and +∞. Do you
remember how to do this? (Hint: use what you learned from the topic of limits at infinity).

12
 7.7 Exercises
Question 1: For each of the following functions, find the second derivative, set it equal to zero to find
potential inflection points, and use the sign of the second derivative to determine if there is a change
in concavity.
(a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x
(b) f (x) = ex − 2x2
(c) f (x) = x5 − 5x3 + 2x
x2
(d) f (x) = x+1

Question 2: For each of the following functions, find the second derivative and examine the change
in concavity based on their (possible) inflection points. Use these to estimate what the graph of the
function would look like, and try to sketch it.
(a) f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 1
(b) f (x) = ln(x) + 2x
(c) f (x) = cos(x) − 2x
(d) f (x) = ln(x2 + 1)
(e) f (x) = 4x4 − 4x3 + 2x2 − x
Question 3: A car’s position along a straight road is modeled according to the function p(t) =
t4 − 8t3 + 18t2 + 10t + 1, where t is time in seconds. Find the time when the acceleration changes
direction.
Question 4: Use critical points, inflection points, monotonicity, vertical and horizontal asymptotes,
x- and y-intercepts, end behavior, and concavity to graph each of the following functions:
(a) f (x) = x2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
(b) f (x) = −x4 + 2x3 − x + 1
(c) f (x) = x21+1
3x
(d) f (x) = x2 −4x+3
(e) f (x) = 2x − 3x − x2 − x + 1
4 3

x3 −3x
(f) f (x) = x2 +x−2

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 8 Chapter 3.8: Tangent Lines and Normal Lines
8.1 Introduction to Tangent Lines and Normal Lines
In calculus, the tangent line and normal line to a curve at a given point are two important concepts
that describe the relationship between the curve and its slope at that point. Namely:
• Tangent Line: A tangent line to a curve at a given point is the straight line that just ”touches” the
curve at that point. It has the same slope as the curve at the point of contact.
• Normal Line: The normal line is the line that is perpendicular to the tangent line at the point of
contact. If the tangent line represents the rate of change of the function, the normal line represents a
direction orthogonal to that rate.

8.2 The Equation of the Tangent Line

The equation of the tangent line at a point (a, f (a)) on a curve y = f (x) can be derived from the
point-slope form of a line:

y − f (a) = f ′ (a)(x − a)
Here:
• f (a) is the value of the function at x = a, which gives the point of tangency.
• f ′ (a) is the derivative of the function at x = a, which gives the slope of the tangent line at that point.
Thus, the slope of the tangent line at any point is given by the derivative of the function at that point.

8.3 The Equation of a Normal Line

The normal line is perpendicular to the tangent line. The slope of the normal line is the negative reciprocal
of the slope of the tangent line. If the slope of the tangent line at x = a is f ′ (a), then the slope of the
normal line is − f ′1(a) .
Using the point-slope form of the equation of a line, the equation of the normal line at (a, f (a)) is:

1
y − f (a) = − (x − a)
f ′ (a)

8.4 Example
Let’s find the tangent and normal lines for the curve f (x) = x2 at a point x = 1. First, we find the value of
the function at x = 1. This is f (1) = 12 = 1, so the point of tangency must be (1, 1).
Secondly, find the derivative of the function. This is f ′ (x) = 2x. Now, evaluate the derivative at x = 1.
Thus f ′ (1) = 2(1) = 2. So, the slope of the tangent line at x = 1 is 2.
Now, we can write the equation of the tangent line using the point-slope form of the equation of a line:

y − 1 = 2(x − 1) ⇒ y = 2x − 1
So, the equation of the tangent line at x = 1 of f (x) = x2 is y = 2x − 1. Now, to find the slope of the
normal line. As the product of this slope and the slope of the tangent line, which is 2, must be negative
−1, it can fairly easily be argued that the slope of the normal line is − 21 .
Writing the equation of the normal line in the point-slope form is:

1 1 3
y − 1 = − (x − 1) ⇒ y = − x +
2 2 2
The procedure is quite the same for any function, and any point of tangency, but the calculations
themselves can be quite a bit more complicated depending on the given function and the point.

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 8.5 Visual Example
This is what tangent and normal lines of a function can look like.

8.6 Exercises
Question 1: For each of the following functions, find the equation of the tangent and the normal lines
at the given point.

(a) f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 2 at x = 1

(b) f (x) = 2x4 − 3x3 + 5x2 − x + 7 at x = 0
(c) f (x) = x2 + 4x + 3 at x = −1

Question 2: For each of the following trigonometric functions, find the equation of the tangent and
normal lines at the given points.

(a) f (x) = sin(x) at x = 0

π
(b) f (x) = cos(x) at x = 4
(c) f (x) = tan(x) at x = π4
(d) f (x) = sin(2x) at x = π2
(e) f (x) = cos(2x) at x = π3

Question 3: For each of the following functions, find the equations of the tangent and normal lines at
the given points, and sketch the functions, as well as their tangent and normal lines in the coordinate
plane.
(a) f (x) = ex at x = 0
(b) f (x) = e−x at x = 1
(c) f (x) = ln(x) at x = 1
(d) f (x) = 2x at x = 1

15
 9 Chapter 3.9: L’Hospital’s Rule
9.1 Introduction to L’Hospital’s Rule
L’Hospital’s Rule is a powerful method in calculus for evaluating limits involving indeterminate forms. In
other words, it provides a way to calculate limits that result in the indeterminate forms 0/0 or ∞/∞, for
example, when using other methods.

9.2 Statement of L’Hospital’s Rule

L’Hospital’s rule states that if limx→c f (x) = 0 and limx→c g(x) = 0, or alternatively, limx→c f (x) = ∞ and
limx→c g(x) = ∞, and if f ′ (x) and g ′ (x) exist near c, then:

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→c g(x) x→c g (x)

provided that the limit on the right-hand side exists or tends to ∞.

9.3 Example
For example, consider the limit limx→0 sin(x)
x . Observe that if 0 is substituted into the expression, it
becomes 00 , which is an indeterminate form. Since sin(x) and x are differentiable, L’Hospital’s rule can be
used as follows:

sin(x) cos(x)
lim = lim = lim cos(x) = cos(0) = 1
x→0 x x→0 1 x→0

9.4 Another Example

x
Similarly, you can consider the limit limx→∞ xe 2 . If directly substituting ∞, it can be observed that we
obtain the indeterminate form ∞/∞. Thus, we can use L’Hospital’s rule by differentiating the numerator
and the denominator both twice:

ex ex ex 1
lim = lim = lim = lim (ex ) = +∞
x→∞ x2 x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2 2 x→∞

9.5 A Tricky Example

For a trickier example, consider the limit limx→−∞ xex . It has the indeterminate form (∞)(0). We need to
rewrite it as an equivalent expression. If we consider:

ex
lim xex = lim ,
x→−∞ x→−∞ 1
x

we can notice that this will not work. The reason is that the derivatives of the denominator will be − x12 ,
2 6 1 −x
x3 , − x4 , and so on. Thus, instead, let’s consider the identity of ex = e , and rewrite the initial limit
accordingly:

x 1
lim xex = lim = lim =0
x→−∞ x→−∞ e−x x→−∞ −e−x

16
 9.6 Exercises
Question 1: Find the following limits using L’Hospital’s rule, and argue why the rule must be used.
ln(x)
(a) limx→∞ x
x2
(b) limx→0 sin(x)
ex −1
(c) limx→0 x

(d) limx→0 ln(x+1)

x
x2 sin(x)
(e) limx→0 1−cos(x)

Question 2: Use L’Hospital’s rule to determine each of the following limits:

x2 +1
(a) limx→∞ ln(x)

(b) limx→0+ x ln(x)

x2 +1
(c) limx→∞ x2 −1

Question 3: Use L’Hospital’s rule to determine each of the following limits:

x2 +e4x
(a) limx→∞ 2x−ex
ln(2x)
(b) limx→∞ x2
x3 −7x2 +10x
(c) limx→2 x2 +x−6
sin(6x)
(d) limx→0 sin(11x)
1
(e) limx→0+ x x
(f) limx→0+ [ln(x) sin(x)]

10 Chapter 3.10: Applications of Derivatives

10.1 Introduction to Applications of Derivatives
Derivatives are not only used for finding slopes to tangent lines, or graphing the functions, but they can
also be used to solve a variety of practical problems. The derivative of a function at a point gives the rate
of change of the function at that point, which allows us to solve problems involving motion, optimization,
and related rates, among others.

10.2 Examples of Applications

Some examples of applications of derivatives include, but are not limited to, the following:

• Optimization: Finding the maximum or minimum values of a function (this has already been dis-
cussed in previous chapters).
• Related Rates: Solving problems where two or more quantities are changing with respect to time or
another variable.

• Motion: Analyzing the velocity and acceleration of moving objects.

• Linear Approximation: Using the tangent line to approximate function values near a point.

17
 10.3 Example of an Optimization Problem
Suppose you are given a fixed perimeter for a rectangle and you need to maximize its area. Let the length
of the rectangle be l and the width be w. The perimeter is given by P = 2l + 2w, and the area is
A = l × w. You want to maximize the area A, subject to the constraint of P = 100.
First, write w in terms of l using the perimeter equation. Namely,

100
w= −l
2
Thus, w = 50 − l. Then, substitute this into the area equation, i.e., A(l) = l(50 − l) = 50l − l2 . Then,
differentiate the area function, i.e., A′ (l) = 50 − 2l, and solve for A′ (l) = 0, i.e., 50 − 2l = 0 ⇒ l = 25. This
corresponds to the maximum of the function. As a conclusion, the length that maximizes the area is
l = 25, and the width is w = 50 − 25 = 25.

10.4 Related Rates - An Example

Related rates problems involve two or more quantities that change with respect to time, and their
relationship is described by a function. Derivatives are used to relate the rates at which these quantities
change. The solutions to such problems often follow these steps:

1. Write an equation relating the variables: Express the quantities involved in the problem as
functions of time.
2. Differentiate implicitly: Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to time t, using the
chain rule for terms involving time-dependent variables.
3. Solve for the desired rate: Solve for the rate that is being asked in the problem.
4. Substitute known values: Plug in the known values for the variables and rates to find the unknown
rate.

As an example, consider the problem of filling a tank. Suppose water is being poured into a cone-shaped
tank at a rate of 5m3 / min. The radius of the tank is increasing at a rate of 0.2m/ min. How fast is the
height of the water rising when the radius is 2 meters and the height is 6 meters?
First, write down the equation for the volume of the cone. This is V = 31 πr2 h. Then, differentiate with
respect to time:

dV 1 dr dh

= π 2rh + r2
dt 3 dt dt
Then, substitute known values. We are given the following information:

• dV
dt = 5m3 / min

• dr
dt = 0.2m/ min
• r = 2m
• h = 6m

Substituting these into the equation gives:

1 dh

5= π 2 × 2 × 6 × 0.2 + 22 ×
3 dt
dh
Solving gives dt ≈ −0.00625m/ min.

18
 10.5 Exercises
Question 1: Solve the following optimization problems:

(a) A rectangular garden is to be fenced with 100 meters of fencing. What dimensions will maximize
the area of the garden?
(b) A cylindrical can is to be made from 150cm2 of material. Find the dimensions, including the
radius and the height, that will maximize the volume of the can.
(c) A box with an open top is to be made from a square piece of cardboard with side length of 30
centimeters. What dimensions will maximize the volume of the box?

Question 2: Solve the following problems on related rates:

(a) Water is being pumped into a spherical tank at a rate of 4 cubic meters per minute. Find the
rate at which the radius of the water is increasing when the radius is 3 meters.
(b) A ladder is leaning against a wall. The top of the ladder slides down the wall at a rate of 1 foot
per second. How fast is the base of the ladder moving when the top is 4 feet above the ground
and the ladder is 5 feet long?
(c) A balloon is being inflated. The radius of the balloon is increasing at a rate of 0.1 centimeters
per second. How fast is the volume of the balloon increasing when the radius is 10 centimeters?

11 Chapter 3.11: Newton’s Method

11.1 Introduction to Newton’s Method
Newton’s method is an iterative numerical technique used to approximate the roots, or the zeros, of a
real-valued function. It is particularly useful when finding the exact roots of complicated functions, where
algebraic techniques do not suffice.

11.2 The Formula

Given a function f (x), Newton’s method uses the following iterative formula to approximate the root of
f (x) = 0:

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn −
f ′ (xn )

where:

• xn is the current approximation of the root.

• xn+1 is the next approximation of the root.
• f (xn ) is the value of the function at xn .
• f ′ (xn ) is the value of the derivative of the function at xn .

The method begins with an initial guess x0 and then iterates this process to converge to a more accurate
approximation of the root. The steps usually go as follows:

1. Choose an initial guess x0 : Start with a reasonable approximation of the root. This guess should
ideally be close to the actual root for faster convergence.
2. Evaluate f (x) and f ′ (x): Compute the function value and its derivative at x0 .
3. Apply Newton’s Method: Use the given formula above to find the next approximation.

19
 4. Repeat the process: Continue applying the formula iteratively until the difference between con-
secutive approximations is smaller than a predetermined tolerance level, or until the desired level of
accuracy is achieved.
5. Check: Ensure that the method is converging to a root. If there is oscillation detected, the initial
guess must be adjusted accordingly.

11.3 Example of Newton’s Method

Let’s walk through an example of applying Newton’s method for finding a root of a function. For this,
consider the function f (x) = cos(x) − x. We want to find the approximate point where it holds that
f (x) = 0, or in other words, cos(x) − x = 0.
Let’s use the initial guess x0 = 1. For this, we can observe the following when applying the formula for
Newton’s method:

cos(1) − 1
x1 = 1 − ≈ 0.7503638697
− sin(1) − 1

as we know that f ′ (x) = − sin(x) − 1. For the next step, we have:

cos(0.7503638697) − 0.7503638697
x2 = 0.7503638697 − ≈ 0.7391128909.
− sin(0.7503638697) − 1

We repeat this process until the fourth step, at which we achieve the approximation of x4 ≈ 0.7390851332.
As you can see, at each step, we get closer and closer to the real value of the root. However, it is important
to remember that Newton’s method does not solve for the root; it only can provide us with a very good
and accurate approximation if applied correctly.

11.4 Exercises
Question 1: Use Newton’s method to approximate at least one root for each of the following functions:

(a) f (x) = x3 − 2x − 5
(b) f (x) = ex − 3
(c) f (x) = ln(x) − 2
(d) f (x) = x2 + x − 6

Question 2: Use Newton’s method to find the approximate solution in the given interval for each of
the following equations:

(a) 2x2 + 5 = ex in [3, 4]

(b) x4 − 5x3 + 9x + 3 = 0 in [4, 6]
(c) x3 − 4x − 9 = 0 in [0, 10]
√
Question 3: Use Newton’s method to approximate the root of the function f (x) = 3
x. Use the
initial guess x0 = 1. What goes wrong? Why is this?

20