MODERN PHYSICS
Content
• Michelson-Morley's • Interpretation of Bohr's
experiment, postulates;
• Galilean transformation, • Radioactive disintegration,
• Special theory of relativity • Properties of nucleus,
and its consequences, • Nuclear reactions,
• Quantum theory of radiation, • Fission,
• Photo-electric effect, • Fusion,
• Compton effect • Chain reaction,
• Wave particle duality, • Nuclear reactor.
Frame of Reference
A coordinate system relative to which the measurements are taken is known as frame of reference. In physics, a frame of
reference consists of an abstract coordinate system and the set of physical reference points that fix the coordinate system
and standardize measurements within that frame. If we ask A what velocity of B is, he will say it is at rest. But if we ask
the same question to C, he will say B is moving with a velocity V in the positive X direction. So we can see before
specifying the velocity we have to specify in which frame we are or in simple terms, we need to define a frame of
reference.
Inertial Frame of Reference: An inertial frame of reference is a frame where Newton’s law holds true. That means if
no external force is acting on a body it will stay at rest or remain in uniform motion. Suppose a body is kept on the
surface of the earth, for a person on earth it is at rest while for a person on the moon it is in motion so which is my
inertial frame here? Actually, the term inertial frame is relative i.e. first we assume a reference frame to be the inertial
frame of reference. So a more general definition of an inertial frame would be: Inertial frame is at rest or moves with
constant velocity with respect to my assumed inertial reference frame.
Non-inertial Frame of Reference: A non-inertial frame is a frame that is accelerated with respect to the assumed
inertial frame of reference. Newton’s law will not hold true in these frames. So in the above example if I assume earth to
be an inertial reference frame the moon becomes a non-inertial reference frame as it is in accelerated motion with
respect to earth.
Galilean Transformation
•
Relativity
According to classical mechanics space, time and mass
are constant, these are not relative. Einstein said that
space, time and mass are not constant or absolute,
these are relative. This theory of Einstein is called
theory of relativity. There are two parts in the theory
of relativity,
1.
i) Special or restricted theory of relativity: The [Link]
special theory of relativity ,developed in 1905,treats watch?v=8xch4ppI3tg
problems involving inertial frames of reference, which 2.
are frames of reference moving at constant velocity [Link]
with respect to one another. watch?v=lN9NPngklTY
ii) General theory of relativity: The general theory
of relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, treats
problems involving inertial frames of reference
accelerated with respect to one another.
Postulates of the Special Theory of
Relativity
1. First Postulate: This postulate is called the principal of relativity. Stated as, “ The laws of
the physics are same in all inertial reference frames.”
Explanation: This postulate express the absence of an absolute or fixed frame of reference .
For, if the laws of physics were different for different observers in relative motion, it could be
determined from these differences which of them were “stationary” in space and which were
moving.” But because there is no fixed frame of reference , this distinction between state of rest
and of uniform motion is not possible.
2. Second Postulate: This postulate is called the principal of constant velocity of light. Stated
as, “The speed of the light in free space has the same value in all inertial reference frames.”
Explanation: This postulate tells that the speed of light in vacuum is always the same 3x108
ms-1 no matter what the speed of the observer or the source. This a person moving toward or
away from a source of light will measure the same speed for that light as someone at rest with
respect to the source.
Lorentz Transformation
•
Length Contraction
The length of any object in a moving frame will appear shortened in the direction
of motion, or contracted. The amount of contraction can be calculated from the
Lorentz transformation. The length is maximum in the frame in which the object
is at rest. This phenomenon is known as length contraction or Lorentz-Fitz Gerald
contraction.
Time Dilation
A clock in a moving frame will be seen to be running slow, or "dilated"
according to the Lorentz transformation. The time will always be shortest as
measured in its rest frame. The time measured in the frame in which the
clock is at rest is called the "proper time"
•
Photo-electric Effect
What is the Photoelectric Effect and Why does it Occur?
• The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from
the surface of a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons. It is important to note that the emission of
photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is
dependent on the frequency of the light that is incident on the metal’s surface.
The process through which photoelectrons are ejected from the surface of the
metal due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.
• The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal
tend to absorb energy from the incident light and use it to overcome the
attractive forces that bind them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration detailing
the emission of photoelectrons as a result of the photoelectric effect is provided
below.
Explaining the Photoelectric Effect:
The Concept of Photons
The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave. However, this phenomenon
can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which light can be visualized as a stream of particles of
electromagnetic energy. These ‘particles’ of light are called photons. So we can say, a photon is a type of
elementary particle that forms the basic unit of electromagnetic radiation. The energy held by a photon is
related to the frequency of the light via Planck’s equation:
E = h𝜈 = hc/λ
Where,
E denotes the energy of the photon
h is Planck’s constant
𝜈 denotes the frequency of the light
c is the speed of light (in a vacuum)
λ is the wavelength of the light
Thus, it can be understood that different frequencies of light carry photons of varying energies. For
example, the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light (the wavelength of blue light is much
shorter than the wavelength of red light). Therefore, the energy held by a photon of blue light will be
greater than the energy held by a photon of red light.
Minimum Condition for Photoelectric Effect
For the photoelectric effect to occur, the photons that are incident on the surface of
the metal must carry sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the
electrons to the nuclei of the metals. The minimum amount of energy required to
remove an electron from the metal is called the threshold energy (denoted by the
symbol Φ).It is also known as work function. For a photon to possess energy equal
to the threshold energy, its frequency must be equal to the threshold frequency
(which is the minimum frequency of light required for the photoelectric effect to
occur). The threshold frequency is usually denoted by the symbol 𝜈th and the
associated wavelength (called the threshold wavelength) is denoted by the symbol
λth. The relationship between the threshold energy and the threshold frequency can
be expressed as follows.
Φ = h𝜈th = hc/λth
Photoelectric Effect Formula
•
Experimental Study of Photoelectric
Effect
The given experiment is used to study the photoelectric effect experimentally. In an evacuated glass
tube, two zinc plates C and D are enclosed. Plates C acts as anode and D acts as a photosensitive plate.
Two plates are connected to a battery B and ammeter A. If the radiation is incident on the plate D
through a quartz window W electrons are ejected out of the plate and current flows in the circuit. This
is known as photocurrent. Plate C can be maintained at desired potential (+ve or – ve) with respect to
plate D.
•
Applications of Photoelectric Effect
• Used to generate electricity in Solar Panels. These panels contain metal
combinations that allow electricity generation from a wide range of wavelengths.
• Motion and Position Sensors: In this case, a photoelectric material is placed in
front of a UV or IR LED. When an object is placed in between the Light-emitting
diode (LED) and sensor, light is cut off and the electronic circuit registers a change
in potential difference
• Lighting sensors such as the ones used in smartphones enable automatic
adjustment of screen brightness according to the lighting. This is because the
amount of current generated via the photoelectric effect is dependent on the
intensity of light hitting the sensor.
• Digital cameras can detect and record light because they have photoelectric
sensors that respond to different colours of light.
• X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): This technique uses x-rays to
irradiate a surface and measure the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons.
Important aspects of the chemistry of a surface can be obtained such as elemental
composition, chemical composition, the empirical formula of compounds and
chemical state.
• Photoelectric cells are used in burglar alarms.
•
Compton Effect
•
Importance of Compton effect
• Compton scattering is the phenomenon of scattering of photon
by the small charged particle like electron. It has many practical
applications like in radiation therapy because Xrays and gamma
rays interact with body cells by compton scattering and destroy
the defective cells in the human body.
• It is also used in probing the atomic structure of elements.
• But the main importance of compton effect (not practical
application) is that it proves the particle nature of light.
Difference Between Compton Effect
and Photoelectric Effect
Compton effect Photoelectric effect
This is the effect caused by the inelastic scattering This is the effect caused by the weakly bound
of high-energy photons that are bound to free electrons that are ejected from the surface of the
electrons. material when electromagnetic radiation interacts
with the electrons.
Arthur Compton explained the effect. Albert Einstein explained the effect.
The energy associated with the free electrons is The energy associated with the electrons is
mid-energy. low-energy.
The wavelength of the scattered photon is higher The wavelength is not observed as the photon
than that of the incident photon. disappears after interacting with the electrons.
Wave particle duality
• Wave–particle duality is the concept in quantum physics, holds that
matter and light exhibit the behaviors of both waves and particles,
depending upon the circumstances of the experiment.
• Wave–particle duality postulates that-
i. all particles exhibit both particle and wave properties.
ii. Light was thought either to consist of waves (Huygens) or of particles
(Newton)
Wave-Particle Duality in Light
Does light consist of particles or waves? When
one focuses upon the different types of
phenomena observed with light, a strong case
can be built for a wave picture. By the turn of the
20th century, most physicists were convinced by
phenomena that light could be fully described by
a wave, with no necessity for invoking a particle
nature. But the story was not over. Most
commonly observed phenomena with light can
be explained by waves. But some phenomena
like photoelectric effect suggested a particle
nature for light. So we can say, Light is able to
function as both a particle and a wave,
depending on how the experiment is conducted
and when observations are made. This multiple
personality of light is referred to as
"wave-particle duality in light."
Wave-particle duality in matter
• Just like light, matter is also capable of exhibiting properties of both wave-lengths and
particles.
• Based on the idea of “wave particle duality in light” in 1923 physicists Louis De Broglie
suggested that the same kind of duality must be applicable to the matter. He proposed that
any particle of matter having momentum (p) has an associated wavelength (λ).
• De Broglie Wavelength formula is given by λ= h/p
Where,
h is the Planck constant
p=mv, momentum of a particle,
• So the wavelength is given by λ=h/mv.
• From above equation we can conclude that, massive objects exhibit very small wavelengths,
so small in fact that it's rather pointless to think of them in a wave form. However, in small
objects, their wavelength is observable and in some cases significant.
Bohr Model of atom
• Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It
came into existence with the modification of Rutherford’s
model of an atom. Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear
model of an atom, in which he explained that a nucleus
(positively charged) is surrounded by negatively charged
electrons.
• Bohr modified this atomic structure model by explaining that
electrons move in fixed orbitals (shells) and not anywhere in
between and he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed
energy level. Rutherford basically explained the nucleus of an
atom and Bohr modified that model into electrons and their
energy levels. Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus
(positively charged) surrounded by negative electrons moving
around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron
located away from the nucleus has more energy, and electrons
close to the nucleus have less energy.
Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom
• In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the
positively charged nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits
or shells.
• Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are
known as orbital shells.
• The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…)
known as the quantum number. This range of quantum number
starts from nucleus side with n=1 having the lowest energy level.
The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and
when an electron attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be in
the ground state.
• The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level by gaining the required energy and an electron
moves from a higher energy level to lower energy level by losing
energy.
Radioactivity
•
In the year 1896, Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity by accident. A Uranium compound was placed
in a drawer containing photographic plates, wrapped in a black paper. When the plates were examined later
it was found that they were exposed! This exposure gave rise to the concept of Radioactive decay.
Radioactivity can be seen in such forms
Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy are emitted)
Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons)
Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium nucleus)
Radioactivity is two types of kind.
Natural radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of radiations from unstable nuclei is known
as natural radioactivity.
Artificial radioactivity: Not all nuclear reactions are spontaneous. These reactions occur when
stable isotopes are bombarded with particles such as neutrons. This method of inducing a nuclear
reaction to proceed is termed artificial radioactivity.
Properties of Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus.
• The rate of decay of the nucleus is independent of temperature
and pressure.
• Radioactivity is dependent on the law of conservation of charge.
• The physical and chemical properties of the daughter nucleus
are different from the mother nucleus.
• The emission of energy from radioactivity is always
accompanied by alpha, beta, and gamma particles.
• The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent on the
number of atoms that are present at the time.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Radioactivity
• Advantages of radioactivity are:
Gamma rays are used to kill cancerous cells and hence used in radiotherapy.
Cobalt-60 is used to destroy carcinogenic cells.
Gamma rays are used in scanning the internal parts of the body.
Gamma rays kill microbes present in food and prevent it from decay by
increasing the shelf life.
Age of the rocks can be studied using radioactive radiations by measuring the
argon content present in the rock.
• Disadvantages of radioactivity are:
High dosage of radioactive radiation on the body might lead to death.
Radioactive isotopes are expensive
Radioactive Decay Law
•
•
Half-life
•
•
Mean Life
•
Nucleus of an Atom
The nucleus of an atom is the central region of an atom where the
majority of the mass is concentrated.
Through the scattering of alpha particles experiment by
Rutherford, we learned that the nucleus of an atom contains a
majority of the mass of the atom. Numerically speaking, the
nucleus of an atom occupies almost 10-14 times the volume of the
atom but contains 99.99% of the atomic mass. The nucleus of an
atom is so small that if you expanded an atom to fill up a room,
the nucleus of an atom would still be no larger than a pinhead!
Basic properties of a Nucleus
Some of the basic properties of a nucleus are given below:
(i) The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, collectively known as
nucleons.
(ii) Nucleons interact with one another with a strong short range force known
as nuclear force.
(iii) All nuclei are positively charged (+1.6×10-19C).
(iv) No electron can exist inside the nucleus.
(v) All nuclei have approximately spherical symmetry structure.
(vi) The atomic binding energy is quite small compared to the nuclear binding
energy.
(vii) More than 99% mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
(viii) The radius of nucleus is of order 10-13cm is smaller than atom (10-8cm).
Composition of the nucleus
✔ The nucleus is composed of Z protons
and N neutrons. The atomic number Z
determines the chemical properties of the
atom. The mass number A=Z+N
determines approximately the mass of
the nucleus in atomic mass units.
✔ A particular nucleus defined by A and Z
is known as a nuclide.
•
•
Nuclear Size
•
•
Atomic mass
An atom is tiny and therefore its mass is also proportionally
minute. A regular unit of mass such as a Kilogram (Kg) cannot be
used to weigh something as small as an atom and to address this
issue, scientists have created a new unit of mass. It is called the
Atomic Mass Unit (u). Its reference is taken as Carbon-12 and 1
Atomic Mass unit is equal to 1/12th the weight of one atom of
Carbon 12.
1 u = 1.660539 10-27 kg
Mass Defect
•
Nuclear Binding Energy
•
Nuclear Reactions
•
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the process in which a large nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei with the release of energy. In other words, fission the
process in which a nucleus is divided into two or more fragments, and
neutrons and energy are released.
For example,
236
92
U = 14456Ba + 89 36Kr + 3n + 177 MeV
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a reaction through which
two or more light nuclei collide into each
other to form a heavier nucleus. This
reaction takes place with elements which
have a low atomic number, such as
Hydrogen. It is the opposite of nuclear
fission.
Nuclear Reactor
• A nuclear reactor is the most important
part of a nuclear power plant. It is where
the nuclear chain reactions occur that
produce energy by fission. The heat thus
produced can be used to produce
electricity. The main purpose of a reactor
is to contain and control the energy
released. Uranium is used as the nuclear
fuel in the reactors.
• The heat produced by nuclear reactions is
used to convert the water into steam,
which is further converted into
carbon-free electricity with the help of
turbines.