The sound wave was discovered back as far as Leonardo da Vinci’s (1452–1519) era.
He discovered
that sound travels in waves. He was a brilliant scientist, artist, and thinker and contributed many
discoveries in the field of science. He was a man before his time who thought up inventions and
ideas that came to be built far later by other engineers and scientists.
Christian Doppler later discovered that sound waves could be compressed or expanded, thereby,
further expanding on da Vinci’s [Link] waves have been rethought and the theory re-analyzed
by many scientists throughout and music are parts of our everyday sensory experience. Just as
humans have eyes for the detection of light and color, so we are equipped with ears for the detection
Further Reading :
sound wave physics
Sound of Class 8
Sound is a form of energy which produces the sensation of hearing. This sensation is produced by
longitudinal waves in an elastic medium.
A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium, transporting energy from
one location to another location. The medium is simply the material through which the disturbance
is moving. It can be thought of as a series of interacting particles.
PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVE:
Sound is a mechanical wave that results from the back and forth vibration of the particles of the
medium through which the sound wave is moving. If a sound wave is moving from left to right
through air, then particles of air will be displaced both rightward and leftward as the energy of the
sound wave passes through it. The motion of the particles is parallel (and anti-parallel) to the
direction of the energy transport. This is what characterizes sound waves in air as longitudinal waves.
In laboratory, sound is produced by a tuning fork when beaten with rubber pad, by plucking a
stretched string of violin, by striking tabla, by blowing flute etc.
sound wave physics
Musical instruments and their vibrating parts :
[Link].
Musical instrument
Vibrating part producing sound
1.
Veena
Stretched string
2.
Tabla
Stretched membrane
3.
Flute
Air-column
Sound produced by humans :
In humans, the sound is produced by the voice box or the larynx. Put your fingers on the throat and
find a hard bump that seems to move when you swallow. This part of the body is known as the voice
box. It is at the upper end of the windpipe. Two vocal cords are stretched across the voice box or
larynx in such a way that it leaves a narrow slit between them for the passage of air.
When the lungs force air through the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing sound. Muscles attached
to the vocal cords can make the cords tight or loose. When the vocal cords are tight and thin, the
type or quality of voice is different from that when they are loose and thick.
PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVE:
The vibrating string of a musical instrument or the vibrating prongs of the tuning fork, set the
molecules of the air surrounding them into vibration. These vibrating air molecules, in turn pass on
their vibrations to the neighbouring air molecules and in this manner, sound travels to the listener in
the form of waves. A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium due to the vibratory
motion of the particles of the medium. Sound cannot travel in vacuum. It always need a medium to
travel.
SOUND NEEDS A MATERIAL MEDIUM FOR ITS PROPAGATION :
An electric bell is enclosed inside an inverted bell jar by hanging from the rubber cork. The jar is
closed at the bottom by an airtight plate with a hole in the centre. A pipe through the hole leads out
to a vacuum pump (pump which draws the air out of a vessel).
The bell is connected to a battery through a key.
The bell is started by closing the key. Initially when jar has normal air inside it, sound waves produced
by the ringing bell heard outside the jar.
The vacuum pump is started and the air from inside the jar is gradually drawn out. With decrease air
inside the jar, sound heard becomes weaker and weaker. After sometime no sound is heard, though
the bell hammer is seen in vibration.
Conclusion:
In the absence of medium (air) around the source, sound is not being propagated.
A natural fact : Moon has no atmosphere. The space above the atmosphere is also vacuum. If some
explosion takes place on moon, sound of the explosion will not be propagated to the earth. So the
sound waves never reach the earth.
NATURE OF SOUND WAVE:
Sound waves are of longitudinal type because these make the particles of the medium vibrate in the
direction in which wave travels. A moving sound wave produces compressions (regions of more
density and pressure) and rarefactions (regions of less density and pressure) alternately at regular
time intervals. This wave can be graphically represented as:
sound wave physics
Compression :
The region of maximum density of medium in a longitudinal wave, is called compression.
Rarefaction :
The region of minimum density of medium in a longitudinal wave, is called rarefaction.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVE:
Amplitude : The maximum displacement of vibrating particles from its mean position is known as
amplitude. It is denoted by `a' or A. The amplitude of a sound is represented by the height of the
wave. When there is a loud sound, the wave is high and the amplitude is large. Conversely, a smaller
amplitude represents a softer sound. A decibel is a scientific unit that measures the intensity of
sounds. The softest sound that a human can hear is the zero point. When the sound is twice as loud,
the decibel level goes up by six. Humans speak normally at 60 decibels.
sound wave physics
Wavelength : The wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave. The period of a wave
is the time required for one complete cycle of the wave to pass by a point. So, the period is the
amount of time it takes for a wave to travel a distance of one wavelength.
Wavelength is defined in following different ways
It is the distance travelled by a wave during one complete vibration of the vibrating particle.
It is the distance between two nearest particles in the same phase.
It is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs of a transverse wave.
It is the distance between two consecutive rarefactions or compressions of a longitudinal wave.
It is the length of one complete wave. Wavelength is denoted by `λ' (lambda). Its unit is metre (m).
sound wave physics
The wavelength of a wave is merely the distance that a disturbance travels along the medium in one
complete wave cycle. Since a wave repeats its pattern once every wave cycle, the wavelength is
sometimes referred to as the length of the repeating patterns - the length of one complete wave. For
a transverse wave, this length is commonly measured from one wave crest to the next adjacent wave
crest or from one wave trough to the next adjacent wave trough. Since a longitudinal wave does not
contain crests and troughs, its wavelength must be measured differently. A longitudinal wave consists
of a repeating pattern of compressions and rarefactions. Thus, the wavelength is commonly
measured as the distance from one compression to the next adjacent compression or the distance
from one rarefaction to the next adjacent rarefaction.
Since a sound wave consists of a repeating pattern of high-pressure and low-pressure regions moving
through a medium, it is sometimes referred to as a pressure wave. If a detector, whether it is the
human ear or a man-made instrument, were used to detect a sound wave, it would detect
fluctuations in pressure as the sound wave impinges upon the detecting device. At one instant in
time, the detector would detect a high pressure; this would correspond to the arrival of a
compression at the detector site. At the next instant in time, the detector might detect normal
pressure. And then finally a low pressure would be detected, corresponding to the arrival of a
rarefaction at the detector site. The fluctuations in pressure as detected by the detector occur at
periodic and regular time intervals. In fact, a plot of pressure versus time would appear as a sine
curve. The peak points of the sine curve correspond to compressions; the low points correspond to
rarefactions; and the "zero points" correspond to the pressure that the air would have if there were
no disturbance moving through it. The diagram below depicts the correspondence between the
longitudinal nature of a sound wave in air and the pressure-time fluctuations that it creates at a fixed
detector location.
sound wave physics
Do not conclude from the above diagram that sound is a transverse wave that has crests and
troughs. Sound waves traveling through air are indeed longitudinal waves with compressions and
rarefactions. As sound passes through air (or any fluid medium), the particles of air do not vibrate in
a transverse manner. Do not be misled - sound waves traveling through air are longitudinal waves.
Time-period : Time taken by a vibrating particle to make one complete vibration is called its time-
period. Also, time taken by a wave to move a distance equal to its wavelength λ, is called the time-
period of the wave. It is denoted by T. Its unit is second (s).
Frequency : The number of vibrations completed by a particle in one second is called its frequency.
Frequency is also defined as the number of waves (or crests) passing a given point in one second. It is
denoted by ‘n' or N . Its unit is hertz (Hz). Every cycle of sound has one condensation, a region of
increased pressure, and one rarefaction, a region where air pressure is slightly less than normal. The
frequency of a sound wave is measured in hertz. Hertz (Hz) indicate the number of cycles per second
that pass a given location. If a speaker's diaphragm is vibrating back and forth at a frequency of 900
Hz, then 900 condensations are generated every second, each followed by a rarefaction, forming a
sound wave whose frequency is 900 Hz.
Pitch : Pitch is the sensation (brain interpretation) of the frequency of an emitted sound. Faster the
vibration of the source, higher is the frequency and higher is the pitch. Similarly low pitch sound
corresponds to low frequency.
A high pitch sound is called a shrill sound (e.g. humming of a bee, sound of guitar etc). A low pitch
sound is called a hoarse sound (e.g. roar of a lion, car horn etc).
How the brain interprets the frequency of an emitted sound is called the pitch. We already know that
the number of sound waves passing a point per second is the frequency. The faster the vibrations the
emitted sound makes (or the higher the frequency), the higher the pitch. Therefore, when the
frequency is low, the sound is lower.
Loudness or softness :
Loudness or softness of a sound wave is the sensation that depends upon its amplitude. When we
strike a table top with more force, it vibrates and produces loud sound waves which have more
amplitude. When struck with smaller force, vibrating table top produces soft sound waves which
have less amplitude. A loud sound wave carries more energy and can be heard at large distance.
Reduction in amplitude at large distance, makes the sound soft.
Timbre or quality : Quality or timbre is a characteristic of a sound which enables us to distinguish
between the sounds of same loudness and pitch. This characteristic of sound helps us to recognise
our friend from his voice without seeing him. The quality of two sounds of same loudness and pitch
produced by two different sources are distinguishable because of different wave forms produced by
them. e.g. The violin and flute (Bansuri).
Intensity :Intensity of a sound is defined as the sound energy transferred per unit time per unit area
placed perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of sound. i.e. intensity of sound = (Sound
Energy/Time x Area)
Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity. It does not depend on the response of our ears.
The S.I. unit of intensity of sound is joule s-1 m-2 or watt m-2( ⇒1 Js-1 = 1W)
The intensity level of sound is measured in decibels (dB). Decibels are units of intensity that are
based upon a logarithmic scale. This means that a sound with an intensity of 20 dB is ten times as
loud as one with an intensity of 10 dB, 30 dB is ten times as intense as 20 dB, and so on. The reason
for this logarithmic scale is that humans hear intensity on a similar logarithmic scale. So, while a 20
dB sound is ten times as intense as a 10 dB sound, we perceive it as only twice as loud. The hearing
threshold (level at which humans begin to perceive sound) is 0 dB. When a sound reaches upwards
of 120 dB, it is above the threshold of pain (point at which most people begin feeling pain).
Everything in between can be heard by a human with normal hearing.
A Table of Decibel levels
RELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND TIME PERIOD
Let frequency = n
∴ Time taken to complete n vibrations = 1 second
Or Time taken to complete 1 vibration = 1/n second
But the time taken to complete one vibration is called time-period T, hence
T= 1/n or n × T = 1
∴ Frequency × Time period = 1
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LOUDNESS AND INTENSITY OF SOUND:
[Link].
Loudness
Intensity of a sound
Loudness is a subjective quantity. it depends upon the sensitivity of the human ear. A sound may be
loud for a person but the same sound may be feeble for another who is hard of hearing.
Intensity of a sound is an objective physical quantity. It does not depend on the sensitivity of a
human ear.
Loudness cannot be measured as a physical quantity because it is just sensation which can be felt
only.
Intensity of a sound can be measured as a physical quantity
1. Noise
2. Hearing Impairment
3. Human Ear of sound.
ABOUT RANGE OF HEARING
The human ear is able to hear sound in a frequency range of about 20Hz to 20kHz. We can not hear
sounds of frequencies less than 20Hz or more than 20kHz, these limits vary from person to person
and with age. Children can hear sounds of somewhat higher frequencies, say upto 30 kHz. With age,
our ability to hear high frequency sound diminishes. For the elders, the upper limit often falls to 10-
12 kHz. We take 20Hz-20 kHz as the audible range for an average person.
Even in the audible range the human ear is not equally sensitive for all frequency. It is most sensitive
to frequencies around 2000-3000 Hz.
Sound of frequencies less than 20 Hz is known as infrasonic sound or infrasound. Sound of frequency
greater than 20kHz is known as ultrasonic or ultrasound.
Different animals have different ranges of audible frequencies. A dog can hear sounds of frequencies
upto about 50 kHz and a bat upto about 100 kHz. Dolphins can hear sounds of even higher
frequencies. Animals such as elephants and whales can hear sounds of frequencies less than 20 Hz.
Some fishes can hear sounds of frequencies as low as 1-25 Hz.
Further Reading :
1. Hearing Impairment
2. Echo
3. Noise
SPEED OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT MEDIUM
Sound travels with different speed in different media like solid, liquid and gas. This is because, sound
travels in a medium due to the transfer of energy from one particle to another particle of the
medium.
SOLID:
Since the particles of solid are close to each other, so the transfer of energy from one particle to
another takes place in lesser time (i.e. faster). Hence speed of sound in solids is large.
LIQUID:
Speed of sounds in liquids is lesser than in solids since the particles are away from each other as
compared to solids.
GAS:
Speed of sound in gases is lesser than the speed in liquids and solids as the particles are far away as
compare to solids and liquids.
Effect of temperature on the speed of sound
About Effect of temperature on the speed of sound
Sound travels faster as the temperature of the medium increases and vice-versa. This happens
because as temperature increases, the particles of the medium collide more frequently and hence
the disturbance spreads faster.
Speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s with every 1°C increase in temperature.
e.g. If speed of sound in air at 0°C is 330 m/s, then its speed at 25°C will be 345 m/s.
Speed of sound does not depends on the pressure of the medium if temperature of the medium
remains constant.
AUDIBLE WAVE:
The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequency between 20Hz to 20kHz. This range is known
as audible range and these waves are known as audible waves.
e.g. Waves produced by vibrating sitar, guitar, organ pipes, flutes, shehnai etc.
INFRASONIC WAVE:
A longitudinal elastic wave whose frequency is below the audible range i.e. 20Hz, is called an
infrasonic wave.
It is generally generated by a large source. e.g. Earthquake.
ULTRASONIC WAVE:
A longitudinal wave whose frequency is above the upper limit of audible range i.e. 20 kHz, is called
ultrasonic wave. It is generated by very small sources. e.g. Quartz crystal.
Further Reading :
1. Range of Hearing
2. Noise
ULTRASOUND
Sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing are known as
ultrasound. The limit varies from person to person however it is approximately 20,000 Hertz. The
physical properties of ultrasound are similar to the normal audible sound.
This type of scientific idea is used in many different fields like navigation, medicine, imaging,
cleaning, mixing, communication, testing etc. Even in nature, bats and porpoises use this explicit
technique for the location of prey and obstacles.
Applications
Cleaning
In objects with parts that have some difficulty to reach, for example, spiral tubes and electronic
parts, the method of ultrasonic cleaning is employed. Here, the object is dipped in a solution of
suitable cleaning material and ultrasonic waves are passed into it. As a result of this, high frequency
waves are generated which cause the dirt and grease to detach from the surface.
Detection of Cracks
Ultrasound is used to sight cracks in the metallic components that are utilized in the development of
high rise structures like buildings and bridges. They generate and display an ultrasonic waveform
that's interpreted by a trained operator, usually with the help of analysis software, to find and
categorize flaws in test pieces. High-frequency sound waves reflect from flaws in predictable ways,
producing distinctive echo patterns that can be displayed and recorded by movable instruments. A
trained operator identifies specific echo patterns corresponding to the echo response from good
parts and from representative flaws. The echo pattern from a test piece may then be compared to
the patterns from these calibration standards to work out its condition.
Sonar
SONAR, Sound Navigation, and Ranging is a technique in which sound waves are used to navigate,
detect and communicate under the surface of the water.
Ultrasonography
Medical ultrasound is a diagnostic imaging technique based on it. It's used for the imaging of internal
body structures like muscles, joints and internal organs. Ultrasonic images are referred as sonograms.
During this method, pulses of ultrasound are sent to the tissue using a probe. The sound echoes off
the tissue, wherever different tissues reflect sound varying in degrees. These echoes are recorded
and displayed an image.
PRODUCTION OF SOUND WAVE :
These are produced by electronic oscillator using high frequency vibrations of quartz crystal.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVE :
Sound wave of all frequencies carry energy with them, with increase in frequency, vibration becomes
faster and also energy contents and force increase. When ultrasound travels in solid, liquid and gas it
subjects the particles of matter to face large force and energy.
ECHO
Sound and echo appear to be similar concepts, however aren't. They are completely different
phenomena of sound. When the sound is repeated the sound wave is reflected, it is known as echo.
Echo is heard when space is massive.
Example: Imagine standing in an empty room and shouting “Hi”. You'll be hearing “hi”…“hi”…”hi”
repeated sounds in a fading pattern. This phenomenon is called as an echo. The sound of the voice
goes out into the room, bouncing against walls till returning to our ears. The longer it takes for the
sound to come back, the more disturbing it shall be.
It is of three types :
(a) Instantaneous echo (b) Syllabic echo (c) Successive echo
NSTANTANEOUS ECHO:
The echo of sound of short duration (like clap, pistol shot) is called instantaneous echo. It is found
that sensation of any sound persists for 1/10 to 1/20 seconds in our ear, after it, the existing sound
dies off. This time is called persistence of sound or persistence of hearing. It varies from person to
person and also with frequency of sound. We will use 1/15 second as a typical interval needed to
distinguish two sounds.
SYLLABIC ECHO :
The echo of syllables of spoken words is called syllabic echo.
This echo is clear when the sound of last syllable of speech is reflected from an obstacle at least 22m
away so that sound takes at least (2/15) second during which the last syllable is completely spoken.
SUCCESSIVE ECHO :
This echo is heard when sound is produced between two distant parallel rows of tall buildings or
hills. A number of echo are heard successively due to the multiple reflection. This echo is heard only
in vast open field.
RELATION BETWEEN SPEED OF SOUND, TIME OF HEARING ECHO AND DISTANCE OF REFLECTING
BODY :
If t is the time at which an echo is heard, d is the distance between the source of sound and the
reflecting body and v is the speed of sound. The total distance travelled by the sound is 2d.
Speed of sound, v = 2d/t or d = vt/2
Calculation of Minimum Distance of Hearing Echo
Let d is minimum distance required for hearing an echo when persistence of hearing is 1/15 second.
The velocity of sound (at room temperature) is 340 m/sec.
So, d = vt/2 = (340/2) x (1/15) = 22.67/2
⇒ d = 11 metre (approx).
11 metre is the minimum distance of hearing echo.
(b) Conditions for Formation of an Echo :
The minimum distance between the source of sound and the reflecting body should be 11 metres.
The wavelength of the sound should be less than the height of the reflecting body.
The intensity of sound should be sufficient so that it can be heard after reflection.
Further Reading :
1. Human Ear
2. Range of Hearing
NOISE
Sound waves which produces some trouble sensation and are unacceptable are called noise.
Sound waves which are produced by irregular non periodic vibrations of a body are non-musical in
character (noise), while waves which are produced by regular periodic vibrations are musical in
nature.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF NOISE:
A long exposure to noise pollution may result in the loss of hearing which may lead to deafness.
Noise pollution reduces concentration and results in the loss of work efficiency.
Noise causes anger, tension and it can also interferes with the sleeping pattern of individuals.
Noise can cause loss of night vision as well as colour blindness.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF NOISE:
Machines should be designed in such a way, so that they produce minimum sound.
All automobiles, generators etc. should be provided with improved silencers.
At homes T.V , radio etc. should be played at lowest volume.
Further Reading :
1. Human Ear
2. Hearing Impairment
3. Echo
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Total hearing impairment, which is rare, is usually from birth itself. Partial disability is generally the
result of a disease, injury or age. Children with impaired hearing need special care. By learning sign
language, such children can communicate effectively because speech develops as the direct result of
hearing, a child with a hearing loss may have defective speech also. Technological devices for the
hearing impaired have made it possible for such persons to improve their quality of life. Society can
do much to improve the living environment for the hearing-impaired and help them live normal lives.
MEASURE OF INTENSITY OF SOUND (INTENSITY LEVEL OR SOUND LEVEL) :
It is measured in decibels (dB). It signifies the sound pressure level, Human ear can pick up sound
from 10 dB to 180 dB. The loudness of sound is considered normal if it is between 50 dB to 60 dB. A
normal human being can tolerate loudness of 80 dB above which is painful and causes various health
problems.
What a human perceives as loud or soft depends on the frequency as well as the intensity of the
sound. The graph below displays intensity levels compared with the frequencies for sounds of equal
loudness for humans. The bottom line is the threshold of hearing. At a 1 kHz frequency, the hearing
threshold is 0 dB, but at 60 Hz the decibel level is 50. Only one percent of all human beings can hear
sounds this low, so, the lower line is mainly for those with very good hearing. The next lineup is the
hearing threshold for the majority of people. The top line is the pain threshold. Other than at one
point, about 4 kHz, this line varies little. All of the other lines also dip down at 4 kHz. We can gather
from this graph, then, that the human ear is most sensitive at about 4 kHz.
The Doppler Effect
As an ambulance speeds towards you, sirens blazing, the sound you hear is rather high in pitch. This
is because the sound waves in front of the vehicle are being squashed together by the moving
ambulance. This causes more vibrations to reach your ear per second. As you know, more vibrations
per second results in a higher pitched sound. When the ambulance passes you, the sound becomes
lower in pitch. Behind the ambulance there are fewer vibrations per second, and a lower sound is
heard. This change in pitch is known as the Doppler Effect.
When a vehicle travels faster than the speed of sound, about 330 meters per second, a sonic boom
can be heard. As the vehicle overtakes its own sound, the sound waves spread out behind in a
shockwave, or sonic boom.
Further Reading :
1. Sound
2. Human Ear
THE HUMAN EAR
Hearing is a sense endowed to us, because of the presence of the human auditory system. This
auditory system offers us the ability to understand sound by detecting vibrations in the surrounding
medium. The vibration, as mentioned, consists of minute pressure variations. We are now going to
take a closer look at how this can be achieved.
CONSTRUCTION OF HUMAN EAR:
The ear consists of three compartments: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
The part of ear which we see outside the head is called outer ear. The outer ear consists of broad
part called pinna and about 2 to 3 centimeters long passage called ear canal. At the end of ear canal,
there is a thin, elastic and circular membrane called ear-drum. The ear-drum is also called
tympanum. The outer ear contains air. The middle ear contains three small and delicate bones called
hammer, anvil and stirrup. These ear-bones are linked to one another. One end of the bone called
hammer is touching the ear-drum and its other end is connected to the second bone called anvil. The
other end of anvil is connected to the third bone called stirrup and the free end of stirrup is held
against the membrane over the oval window of inner ear. The middle ear also contains air. The lower
part of middle ear has a narrow tube called `eustachian tube' going to the throat. Eustachian tube
connects the middle ear to throat and ensures that the air pressure inside the middle ear is the same
as that on the outside.
The inner ear has a coiled tube called cochlea. One side of cochlea is connected to the middle ear
through the elastic membrane over the oval window. The cochlea is filled with a liquid. The liquid
present in cochlea contains nerve cells which are sensitive to sound. The other side of cochlea is
connected to auditory nerve which goes into the brain.
WORKING OF HUMAN EAR:
The sound waves (coming from a sound producing body) are collected by the pinna of outer ear.
These sound waves pass through the ear canal and fall on the ear-drum. Sound waves consist of
compressions (high pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure regions). When the compression
of sound wave strikes the ear drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum increases and pushes
the ear drum inwards and when the rarefaction of sound wave falls on the ear drum, the pressure on
the outside of ear drum decreases and it moves outward. Thus, when the sound waves fall on the
ear drum, the eardrum starts vibrating back and forth rapidly.
The vibrating ear drum causes a small bone hammer to vibrate. From hammer, vibrations are passed
on to the second bone anvil and finally to the third bone stirrup. The vibrating stirrup strikes on the
membrane of the oval window and passes its vibrations to the liquid in the cochlea. Due to this, the
liquid in the cochlea begins to vibrate. The vibrating liquid of cochlea set up electrical pulses in the
nerve cells present in it. These electrical pulses are carried by auditory nerve to the brain. The brain
interprets these electrical pulses as sound and we get the sensation of hearing.
Further Reading:
1. Noise
2. Range of Hearing
3. Hearing Impairment