relativity [87 marks]
1. [Maximum mark: 9]
The diagram shows the axes of a coordinate system S at rest relative to the Earth.
Earth is at the origin of S.
x' and ct′ are the coordinates ofa reference frame S′ in which a spacecraft is at
rest. When the origins of the two sets of axes coincide, all clocks in the frames
show zero.
(a) Show that the speed of the spacecraft is 0.80c as measured in S. [1]
Markscheme
moves 4 ly in 5 years OR slope of angle with time axis is 0.8 ✓
Allow evidence for mark on the graph.
(b.i) An event has coordinates x = 0 and ct = 0.60 ly in S. Show, using
a Lorentz transformation, that the time coordinate of this event
in S′ is ct′ = 1.00 ly . [2]
Markscheme
γ = 1.67 OR 5
3
OR 1
✓
√ (1−0.82)
vx 5
ct' = «γ(ct − c
)» = 3
× (0.60 +0) ✓
«= 1.00 ly»
For MP2, working should be seen.
([Link]) Label, on the diagram with the letter P, the point on the ct′ axis
whose ct′ coordinate is 1.00 ly. [2]
Markscheme
identifies point with coordinates x = 0, ct = 0.60 on vertical axis ✓
draws line parallel to the x prime axis until it intersects the prime ct axis ✓
Award [2] for correct position of P without working shown.
(c) At ct = 0 , a light beam is sent from Earth to a space station at rest
4.0 ly away in S. Event R is the arrival of the light beam at the
space station.
(c.i) Draw lines to indicate R on the diagram. [2]
Markscheme
R located at (4,4) ✓
«as intersection of» vertical line through 4 ly and photon worldline at 45
degrees✓
Allow MP2 even if one of the lines is not drawn.
([Link]) Determine, using the diagram or otherwise, the space
coordinate x′ of event R in S′. [2]
Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
Using diagram:
line from R parallel to prime ct axis until it intersects space axis ✓
use of scale from (b) to estimate coordinate to x' = (1.3 ± 0.2) ly ✓
ALTERNATIVE 2
Using Lorentz transformation:
event R has coordinates x = ct = 4.00 ly in S ✓
so x' = «y(x − vt) = 5
3
× (4.00 − 0.80 × 4.00)» = 1.33 ly ✓
2. [Maximum mark: 8]
A muon is an unstable particle with a half-life of 1.56 μs as measured in the
muon’s rest frame. Muons are produced in a laboratory and are all directed at a
speed 0.866c towards a muon detector. The gamma factor (γ ) for this speed is
2.00. The detector, according to observers in the laboratory, is a distance D from
the muon source.
(a) According to laboratory observers
.
number of muons detected 1
=
number of muons produced 2
Calculate D. [2]
Markscheme
T 1 = 2.00 × 1.56 × 10−6 or 3.12 × 10−6 s ✓
2
D = «3.12 × 10−6 × 0.866 × 3 × 108 =» 811 m
Award [2] for BCA
(b) In the muon source rest frame (frame S), the detector is
approaching at a speed 0.866c.
In frame S,
(b.i) show that the distance travelled by the detector when it meets
the muon source is 405 m. [1]
Markscheme
0.866c × half life = 0.866c × 1.56 × 10−6 = « 405 m»
OR
D D
distance travelled by detector = y
= 2
= «405 m» ✓
Working must be seen.
([Link]) determine the time taken for the detector to reach the muon
source. [1]
Markscheme
transit time = 405
0.866c
= 1.56 µs ✓
Award [1] for BCA.
(c) Calculate, using the answers to (b)(i) and (b)(ii) the ratio
number
number of
of muons
muons
detected
produced
in S. [2]
Markscheme
transit time is one half life ✓
so ratio has to be 1
2
✓
Award [2] for BCA.
(d) Comment on the ratios in (a) and (c). [2]
Markscheme
the answers are the same ✓
count rates cannot vary from frame to frame / OWTTE ✓
Do not allow ECF from (c).
Award [2] for “count rates cannot vary” if student made a mistake OR no answer in (c) and well discussed
here.
3. [Maximum mark: 10]
Star A and star B are separated by a fixed distance of 4.8 light years as measured
in the reference frame in which they are stationary. An observer P at rest in a
space station moves to the right with speed 0.78c relative to the stars. A shuttle S
travels from star A to star B at a speed of 0.30c relative to the stars.
(a) State the value of the maximum distance between the stars that
can be measured in any reference frame. [1]
Markscheme
4.8 «light years» ✓
(b) Write down the speed of shuttle S relative to observer P using
Galilean relativity. [1]
Markscheme
«−» 0.48c ✓
Ignore sign
(c) Calculate the distance between star A and star B relative to
observer P. [2]
Markscheme
y= 1.6 ✓
D= 4.8
1.6
= 3 «ly» ✓
Allow ECF from MP1
(d) Show that the speed of shuttle S relative to observer P is
approximately 0.6c. [2]
Markscheme
0.3c−0.78c
= 0.78c×0.3c
✓
1−
2
c
«−» 0.63c ✓
Award [2] if MP1 correct and correct answer given to 1 significant figure.
(e) Calculate the time, according to observer P, that the shuttle S
takes to travel from star A to star B.
[2]
Markscheme
3 ly
Δtp =
(0.78−0.627)c
OR
4.8 ly 0.78c×4.8 ly
Δtp = 1. 6( − 2
)✓
0.3c c
= 19 OR 20 «years» ✓
Award [2] for BCA
(f ) Identify and explain the reference frame in which the proper
time for shuttle S to journey from star A to star B can be
measured. [2]
Markscheme
shuttle measures proper time ✓
as the events occur at the same place for the shuttle / shuttle is at both
events ✓
4. [Maximum mark: 5]
The spacetime diagram shows the Earth frame with the worldline of a spaceship
S moving away from Earth. ct′ = 0 when ct = 0.
(a) Determine the speed of the spaceship relative to Earth. [1]
Markscheme
0.6 c
OR
= 1.8 × 108 «m s−1» ✓
A flash of light sent by an Earth observer at ct = 2.0 km is directed towards the
spaceship.
(b) Estimate, using the spacetime diagram, the time in seconds
when the flash of light reaches the spaceship according to the
Earth observer. [2]
Markscheme
Line drawn at 45° from ct = 2 km to hit spaceship world line at ct = 5 km
OR
ct = 1.2/(c − 0.6c) + 2 = 5 «km» ✓
t= 5000
c
= 1.7 × 10−5 «s» ✓
Award [2] for BCA
(c) Determine the time coordinate ct′ when the flash of light
reaches the spaceship, according to an observer at rest in the
spaceship. [2]
Markscheme
(ct')2 − 0 = 52 − 32
OR
γ = 1.25 ✓
ct' = 4 «km»
OR
t' = 13 «µs» ✓
Allow ECF from (b)
Allow ECF from MP1
5. [Maximum mark: 9]
The diagram shows the axes of a coordinate system S at rest relative to the Earth.
Earth is at the origin of S.
x' and ct′ are the coordinates ofa reference frame S′ in which a spacecraft is at
rest. When the origins of the two sets of axes coincide, all clocks in the frames
show zero.
(a) Show that the speed of the spacecraft is 0.80c as measured in S. [1]
Markscheme
moves 4 ly in 5 years OR slope of angle with time axis is 0.8 ✓
Allow evidence for mark on the graph.
(b.i) An event has coordinates x = 0 and ct = 0.60 ly in S. Show, using
a Lorentz transformation, that the time coordinate of this event
in S′ is ct′ = 1.00 ly . [2]
Markscheme
γ = 1.67 OR 5
3
OR 1
✓
√ (1−0.82)
vx 5
ct' = «γ(ct − c
)» = 3
× (0.60 +0) ✓
«= 1.00 ly»
For MP2, working should be seen.
([Link]) Label, on the diagram with the letter P, the point on the ct′ axis
whose ct′ coordinate is 1.00 ly. [2]
Markscheme
identifies point with coordinates x = 0, ct = 0.60 on vertical axis ✓
draws line parallel to the x prime axis until it intersects the prime ct axis ✓
Award [2] for correct position of P without working shown.
(c) At ct = 0 , a light beam is sent from Earth to a space station at rest
4.0 ly away in S. Event R is the arrival of the light beam at the
space station.
(c.i) Draw lines to indicate R on the diagram. [2]
Markscheme
R located at (4,4) ✓
«as intersection of» vertical line through 4 ly and photon worldline at 45
degrees✓
Allow MP2 even if one of the lines is not drawn.
([Link]) Determine, using the diagram or otherwise, the space
coordinate x′ of event R in S′. [2]
Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
Using diagram:
line from R parallel to prime ct axis until it intersects space axis ✓
use of scale from (b) to estimate coordinate to x' = (1.3 ± 0.2) ly ✓
ALTERNATIVE 2
Using Lorentz transformation:
event R has coordinates x = ct = 4.00 ly in S ✓
so x' = «y(x − vt) = 5
3
× (4.00 − 0.80 × 4.00)» = 1.33 ly ✓
6. [Maximum mark: 7]
The spacetime diagram is in the reference frame of an observer O on Earth.
Observer O and spaceship A are at the origin of the spacetime diagram when
time t = t′= 0. The worldline for spaceship A is shown.
(a(i)) Calculate in terms of c the velocity of spaceship A relative to
observer O. [1]
Markscheme
0. 6c ✓
Accept 1. 8 × 10
8 −1
ms if unit given.
(a(ii)) Draw the x′ axis for the reference frame of spaceship A. [1]
Markscheme
line through origin and through (5, 3) ± one small square at this
coordinate ✓
Answers shown for 5(a)(ii) and (b)(i) and (b)(ii).
Event E is the emission of a flash of light. Observer O sees light from the flash
when t = 9 years and calculates that event E is 4 ly away, in the positive x
direction.
(b(i)) Plot the event E on the spacetime diagram and label it E. [2]
Markscheme
X value of E at 4 «ly» ✓
Y value of E at 5 «y» ✓
(b(ii)) Determine the time, according to spaceship A, when light from
event E was observed on spaceship A. [3]
Markscheme
light cone from E «crosses ct at 9 so» intersection on ct′= 5. 6 ± 0. 2 y
«on ct scale» ✓
γ = 1. 25 ✓
so t′= « 1.25
5.6
= » 4. 5 «y after leaving Earth» ✓
MP1 accept use of linear equations to find t = 5 . 6 25
Allow ECF from (b)(i) and (a)
7. [Maximum mark: 7]
(a) The Lorentz transformations assume that the speed of light is
constant. Outline what the Galilean transformations assume. [1]
Markscheme
constancy of time
OR
speed of light > c is possible ✓
OWTTE
A spaceship is travelling at 0. 80c, away from Earth. It launches a probe away
from Earth, at 0. 50c relative to the spaceship. An observer on the probe
measures the length of the probe to be 8. 0 m.
(b(i)) Deduce the length of the probe as measured by an observer in
the spaceship. [2]
Markscheme
γ = 1. 15 ✓
length = 6. 9 «m» ✓
Allow length in the range 6 . 7 to 7 . 0 m.
Allow ECF from wrong γ
Award [2] marks for a bald correct answer in the range indicated above.
(b(ii)) Explain which of the lengths is the proper length. [2]
Markscheme
8. 0 m / measurement made on the probe ✓
the measurement made by an observer at rest in the frame of the probe ✓
(c) Calculate the speed of the probe in terms of c, relative to Earth. [2]
Markscheme
u =
0.5c+0.8c
0.5c×0.8c
✓
1+
2
c
u = 0. 93c ✓
Allow all negative signs for velocities
Award [2] marks for a bald correct answer
8. [Maximum mark: 12]
A train is moving across a bridge with a speed v = 0.40c. Observer A is at rest in the
train. Observer B is at rest with respect to the bridge.
The length of the bridge LB according to observer B is 2.0 km.
(a(i)) Calculate, for observer A, the length LA of the bridge [2]
Markscheme
γ = 1. 09✔
LA = « 1.09
2.0
= » 1.8 «km» ✔
(a(ii)) Calculate, for observer A, the time taken to cross the bridge. [2]
Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
3
1.8×10
time = 8
✔
1.2×10
1.5 × 10–5 «s» ✔
ALTERNATIVE 2
3
2×10 −5
tB = 8
= 1. 66 × 10 «s» ✔
1.2×10
tB −5
tA =
γ
= 1. 5 × 10 «s» ✔
(b) Outline why LB is the proper length of the bridge. [1]
Markscheme
LB is the length/measurement «by observer B» made in the reference frame
in which the bridge is at rest ✔
NOTE: Idea of rest frame or frame in which bridge is not moving is required.
According to observer B, two lamps at opposite ends of the bridge are turned on
simultaneously as observer A crosses the bridge. Event X is the lamp at one end
of the bridge turning on. Event Y is the lamp at the other end of the bridge
turning on.
Events X and Y are shown on the spacetime diagram. The space and time axes of
the reference frame for observer B are x and ct. The line labelled ct' is the
worldline of observer A.
(c(i)) Draw, on the spacetime diagram, the space axis for the
reference frame of observer A. Label this axis x'.
[1]
Markscheme
x′ axis drawn with correct gradient of 0.4 ✔
NOTE: Line must be 1 square below Y, allow ±0.5 square.
Allow line drawn without a ruler.
(c(ii)) Demonstrate using the diagram which lamp, according to
observer A, was turned on first. [2]
Markscheme
lines parallel to the x′ axis through X and Y intersecting the worldline ct′ at
points shown ✔
so Y/lamp at the end of the bridge turned on first ✔
NOTE: Allow lines drawn without a ruler
Do not allow MP2 without supporting argument or correct diagram.
(c(iii)) Demonstrate, using the diagram, which lamp observer A
observes to light first. [2]
Markscheme
light worldlines at 45° from X AND Y intersecting the worldline ct′ ✔
so light from lamp X is observed first ✔
NOTE: Allow lines drawn without a ruler.
Do not allow MP2 without supporting argument or correct diagram.
(c(iv)) Determine the time, according to observer A, between X and Y. [2]
Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
3
0.4×2.0×10
Δt′= 1. 09 × (0 − 8
)✔
3.0×10
= «–»2.9 × 10–6 «s» ✔
ALTERNATIVE 2
equating spacetime intervals between X and Y
relies on realization that Δx′= γ(Δx − 0) eg:
2 2 2 2
(c Δ t′) − (1. 09 × 2000) = 0 − 2000 ✔
2
√ (1.09×2000) −20002
«±» « ± »2. 9 × 10
−6
Δt′= 8
= «s» ✔
3.0×10
ALTERNATIVE 3
use of diagram from answer to 4(c)(ii) (1 small square = 200 m)
counts 4.5 to 5 small squares (allow 900 – 1000 m) between events for A
seen on B’s ct axis ✔
950 −6 −6
γc
= 2. 9 × 10 ± 0. 2 × 10 «s» ✔
9. [Maximum mark: 3]
A rocket moving with speed v relative to the ground emits a flash of light in the
backward direction.
An observer in the rocket measures the speed of the flash of light to be c.
(a) State the speed of the flash of light according to an observer on
the ground using Galilean relativity. [1]
Markscheme
c–v ✔
(b) State the speed of the flash of light according to an observer on
the ground using Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism. [1]
Markscheme
c✔
(c) State the speed of the flash of light according to an observer on
the ground using Einstein’s theory of relativity. [1]
Markscheme
c✔
10. [Maximum mark: 10]
The diagram shows space and time axes x and ct for an observer at rest with
respect to a galaxy. A spacecraft moving through the galaxy has space and time
axes x′ and ct′.
A rocket is launched towards the right from the spacecraft when it is at the origin
of the axes. This is labelled event 1 on the spacetime diagram. Event 2 is an
asteroid exploding at x = 100 ly and ct = 20 ly.
(a) Plot, on the axes, the point corresponding to event 2. [1]
Markscheme
point as shown ✔
(b) Suggest whether the rocket launched by the spacecraft might
be the cause of the explosion of the asteroid. [2]
Markscheme
ALTERNATIVE 1
the rocket would have to travel faster than the speed of light ✔
so impossible ✔
ALTERNATIVE 2
drawing of future lightcone at origin ✔
and seeing that the asteroid explodes outside the lightcone so impossible
✔
ALTERNATIVE 3
the event was observed at +20 years, but its distance (stationary) is 100 ly ✔
so the asteroid event happened 80 years before t = 0 for the galactic
observer ✔
(c) Show that the value of the invariant spacetime interval
between events 1 and 2 is 9600 ly2. [1]
Markscheme
1002 − 202 = 9600 «ly2» ✔
Also accept 98 (the square root of 9600).
Allow negative value.
(d.i) An observer in the spacecraft measures that events 1 and 2 are a
distance of 120 ly apart. Determine, according to the spacecraft
observer, the time between events 1 and 2. [2]
Markscheme
9600 = 1202 − c2t2 ✔
ct = «−» 69.3 «ly» / t = «−» 69.3 «y» ✔
Allow approach with Lorentz transformation.
([Link]) Using the spacetime diagram, determine which event occurred
first for the spacecraft observer, event 1 or event 2. [2]
Markscheme
line from event 2 parallel to x’ axis intersects ct’ axis at a negative value ✔
event 2 occurred first ✔
(e) Determine, using the diagram, the speed of the spacecraft
relative to the galaxy. [2]
Markscheme
use of tan θ = v
c
with the angle between the time axes ✔
to get (0.70 ± 0.02)c ✔
11. [Maximum mark: 7]
Muons are created at a height of 3230 m above the Earth’s surface. The muons
move vertically downward at a speed of 0.980 c relative to the Earth’s surface. The
gamma factor for this speed is 5.00. The half-life of a muon in its rest frame is 2.20
μs.
(a.i) Estimate in the Earth frame the fraction of the original muons
that will reach the Earth’s surface before decaying according to
Newtonian mechanics. [3]
Markscheme
time of travel is « 3230
8
» = 1.10 × 10−5 «s» ✔
0.98×3.0×10
−5
1.10×10
which is « −6
» = 5.0 half-lives ✔
2.20×10
so fraction arriving as muons is « 1
2
5
»= 1
32
OR
3%✔
Award [3] for a bald correct answer.
([Link]) Estimate in the Earth frame the fraction of the original muons
that will reach the Earth’s surface before decaying according to
special relativity. [2]
Markscheme
−5
1.10×10
time of travel corresponds to « −6
» = 1.0 half-life ✔
5.0×2.20×10
1
so fraction arriving as muons is 2
OR
50 % ✔
Award [2] for a bald correct answer.
(b) Demonstrate how an observer moving with the same velocity
as the muons accounts for the answer to (a)(ii). [2]
Markscheme
observer measures the distance to the surface to be shorter «by a factor of
5.0»/ length contraction occurs ✔
3230
5.0
( )
8
0.98×3.0×10
so time of travel again corresponds to « −6
»= 1.0 half-life ✔
(2.20×10 )
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