THIRD TERM BIOLOGY FOR SS2 a) Regular/ Actinomorphic Flowers (Radial Symmetry)

WEEK 1: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN FLOWERING The flower can be divided into two equal halves along
PLANTS multiple planes through the center. Examples: Rose,
Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students Hibiscus, Tomato.
should be able to: b) Irregular/ Zygomorphic Flowers (Bilateral Symmetry)
1. Describe the structure of a flower with a well-labelled The flower can be divided into two equal halves in only
diagram. one plane. E.g Orchid, Clitoria, Pea. Asymmetrical
2. Match the parts with their functions. Flowers are flower cannot be divided into two equal
3. Justify the mechanism of placentation in flowering plants halves in any plane e.g Canna flower.
with examples. 3. Based on the Number of Floral Parts (Floral Whorls)
The Structure of Flower a) Complete Flowers: Contain all four floral whorls:
A flower is the reproductive structure of an angiosperm sepals (calyx), petals (corolla), stamens (androecium),
(flowering plants). It is the part of the shoot modified and carpels (gynoecium).Example: Hibiscus.
for reproduction. A typical flower consists of four main b) Incomplete Flowers: One or more of the four floral
parts known as floral leaves which consists of: whorls is missing. Example: Maize (female flower lacks
 Sepals or calyx stamens), pumpkin.
 Petals or corolla 4. Based on the Arrangement of Flowers on the Plant
 Stamens or Androecium a) Solitary Flowers: A single flower is borne on a stem or
 Carpels or Pistils or Gynoecium pedicel. E.g: Rose.
These floral leaves are attached to a receptacle and b) Inflorescence: A group or cluster of flowers arranged
arranged in the form of rings called whorls. The whole on a stem. E.g: Mustard, Jasmine.
structure of floral leaves and receptacle is attached to Parts of a Flower
the stem of the plant by a stalk called pedicel. Some 1. Sepals: These are small, leaf-like parts growing at the
flowers have no pedicel and are known as sessile. base of the petals; they form the outermost whorl of
Plant classification based on types of flowers they the flower. Collectively, sepals are known as the calyx.
possess: Some sepals have the same colour as their petals; they
i. Monoecious plants: When unisexual flowers of are called petaloid. Flowers with fused sepals are
both sexes occur on the same plant. E.g. referred to as gamosepalous (e.g. Allamanda) while
pumpkin, corn. flowers with separated sepals are called polysepalous
(e.g. Hibiscus).
ii. Dioecious plants: When male and female flowers
occur on different plants. E.g. date, opwillow. Functions of Calyx:
iii. Polygamous plants: When male, female and  Protect the inner floral leaves when the flower is at
bisexual flowers occur on the same plant. bud stage.
Classification of Flowers  Sepals contain chlorophyll and can therefore carry
out photosynthesis.
Flowers can be classified using various criteria. The
major bases for classification include:  Petaloid sepals help to attract agents of pollination
such as man, insects, birds.
1. Based on Reproductive Organs (Sexuality)
2. Petals: These are the most conspicuous part of the
This classification is based on the presence of male and flower. They lie just above the sepal layer. They are
female reproductive structures in the flower. often bright in colour as their main function is to attract
a) Imperfect/Unisexual Flowers: These flowers have pollinators such as insects, butterflies etc. The petals
either stamens (male organs) or carpels (female are collectively known as the corolla.
organs), but not both. They can be Staminate (male) - When petals are separate and free from each other,
Contain only stamens or Pistillate (female) - Contain they are referred to as polypetalous (e.g. Hibiscus).
only carpels. E.g maize flower When they are fused or united, they are referred to as
b) Perfect/Bisexual Flowers (Hermaphroditic): These gamopetalous (fused petals form a corolla tube e.g.
flowers contain both stamens and carpels in the same Allamanda).
flower. Examples: Hibiscus, Mustard, Rose. Functions of Corolla:
2. Based on Symmetry  Petals aid in attracting animal pollinating agents such
It refers to the way a flower can be divided into equal as insects with their bright colours and scent.
halves.
  Petals can retain pollen grains in the corolla tube or (1) Superior ovary: An ovary is described as superior
keels. when it is placed above the other floral parts, namely:
 Petals help to protect the stamen. the calyx, corolla and stamens on the receptacle, e.g.
hibiscus. The flower having this type superior ovary is
3. Stamen: This is the male part of a flower. Many
described as hypogynous flower.
stamens are collectively known as the androecium. A
stamen is structurally divided into two parts called the (2) Half-inferior ovary: An ovary is described as half-
filament and anther inferior when the ovary lies inside a cup-shaped
receptacle and other floral parts appear to be attached
a. Filament: The part that is long and slender and
slightly above it or almost at the same level, e.g. rose
attaches the anther to the rest of the flower. In
flower. The flower having this type of half inferior ovary
most flowers, the filaments are free from each
is described as perigynous flower.
other, but in some flowers like hibiscus, the
filaments unite to form a staminal tube. (3) Inferior ovary: An ovary is described as inferior
when it is placed below the other floral parts, namely
b. Anther: It is the head of the stamen consisting of
the calyx, corrolla and stamens on the receptacle. That
two lobes, each containing two pollen sacs.
is, other floral parts are above it on the receptacle, e.g.
Anthers are of different shapes. Pollen sacs
cana lily and sunflower. The flower having this type of
contain pollen grains. The role of pollen grains is to
inferior ovary is described as epigynous flower.
deliver the male sex cells to the embryo sac for
fusion after pollination. Placentation in Flowering Plants
4. Pistil: This is the female part of a flower. A collection Placentation is the arrangement of ovules in the ovary
of pistils is called the gynoecium. The pistil consists of of a plant. The ovules attached to the flower’s ovary
three parts: later become the seeds inside the fruits. Ovules are
attached to the ovary via the funiculi (sing. funiculus), a
a. Stigma: This is found at the tip of the style. It
structure similar to an umbilical cord. The point of
forms the head of the pistil. The stigma
attachment on the ovary is called the placenta.
contains a sticky substance whose job is to
catch pollen grains from different pollinators or Types of Placentation:
those dispersed through the wind. 1. Marginal: One elongated placenta is located on one
b. Style: A long slender stalk that holds the stigma. side and ovules are arranged vertically. Ovules are
Once the pollen reaches the stigma, the style attached at the line of carpel's margin. E.g. legumes.
starts to become hollow and forms a tube 2. Axile: Carpels are folded inward and fuse into a
called the pollen tube, which takes the pollen septum forming a central axis on which the ovules are
to the ovary to enable fertilization. arranged. E.g. tomato.
c. Ovary: Forms the base of the pistil. The ovary 3. Parietal: Ovules develop on the inner wall of the
holds the ovules from which the female ovary at the edges of the fusion points of a fused ovary.
gametes are produced. E.g. cucumber.
 Monocarpous ovary: An ovary with only 4. Free-central: Ovules develop freely on the central
one chamber. E.g. peas axis where a false septum is absent. E.g. coconut.
 Polycarpous ovary: An ovary with multiple 5. Basal: The ovules are arranged at the base of the
chambers. ovary. E.g. sunflower.
 Apocarpous ovary: An ovary with two or 6. Superficial: Ovules are attached entirely to the inner
more free chambers. It forms an aggregate surface of the ovary. E.g. Nymphaea.
of fruits. E.g. strawberry.
 Syncarpous ovary: An ovary with two or WEEK 2: POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION IN
more fused chambers. It forms a single fruit
PLANTS
with many seeds. E.g. tomatoes.
Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students
5. Ovules: These are the egg cells of a flower. They are should be able to:
contained in the ovary. In the event of favourable
1. Describe types of pollination.
pollination where a compatible pollen reaches the
2. Distinguish between the methods of pollination by
stigma and eventually reaches the ovary to fuse with
different agents of pollination.
the ovules (fertilization), this fertilized product forms
the fruit, and the ovules become the seeds of the fruit. 3. Explain fertilization and the process of development
in flowering plants
POSITION OF OVARY
Pollination
The position of an ovary in the receptacle dictates how
it is classified.
 Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the c. Anemophilous Flowers: These flowers are
anther to the stigma of flowers. It is the first process in pollinated by the agency of wind. They are small
sexual fertilization in flowering plants. and inconspicuous and are very light so that they
Pollination is of two types is self-pollination and cross are easily carried by the wind. The pollen grains are
pollination. very light, non-sticky, and sometimes winged.
1. Self-pollination: This is when pollen grains are d. Entomophilous Flowers: These flowers are
transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same pollinated by insects. They are often attractive with
plant. It usually occurs in monoecious or bright petals and are fragrant to attract insect
hermaphroditic plants. It is of two types: visitors. They often have broad stigmas or anthers
to allow the insect to perch on them. Many insect-
a. Autogamy: In this type of self-pollination, the pollen
pollinated flowers also secrete nectar, which
is transferred from the anthers of one flower to the
attracts bees, butterflies, or other similar insects.
stigma of the same flower.
The pollen grains in these flowers are often spiny or
b. Geitonogamy: In this type of self-pollination, the have extensions that help them stick onto the body
pollen is transferred from the anthers of one flower to of the insects.
the stigma of another flower but on the same plant.
e. Ornithophilous Flowers: These flowers are
Advantages of self-pollination pollinated by birds. Very few flowers and birds
i. In self-pollination, there is no diversity in the genes show this form of pollination.
and therefore the purity of the race is maintained. Advantages of cross-pollination
ii. The plants do not depend on external factors for i. Cross-pollination is beneficial to the race of the
pollination and even smaller quantities of pollen plant as it introduces new genes into the lineage
grains have a good success rate in getting as a result of fertilization between genetically
pollinated reducing wastage. different gametes.
iii. Self-pollination ensures that recessive characters ii. Cross-pollination improves the resistance of the
are eliminated. offspring to diseases and changes in the
Disadvantages of self-pollination environment.
i. Since there is no mixing up of genes, there are no iii. The seeds produced as a result of cross-
new characters or features introduced into the pollination are vigorous and vital.
lineage of the offspring. iv. If there are any recessive characters in the
ii. Self-pollination is said to reduce the vigor and lineage, they are eliminated due to genetic
vitality of the race as there are no new features recombination.
introduced. v. It is the only way unisexual plants can reproduce.
iii. Without new characters introduced, the resultant Disadvantages of cross-pollination
offspring's immunity to diseases reduces leading to
i. There is a high wastage of pollen grains that need
weak offspring.
to be produced to ensure fertilization occurs.
2. Cross-pollination: This is the transfer of pollen grains
ii. There are high chances that the good qualities
from the anther of a particular flower to the stigma of
may get eliminated and unwanted characteristics
another flower on a different plant of the same species.
may get added due to recombination of the
Cross-pollination is always dependent on another agent genes.
to cause the transfer of pollen. The agents of
iii. Chances of occurrence are less certain than in
pollination include birds, animals, water, wind, and
self-pollinated flowers as the distance between
insects. Based on the agent of pollination, cross-
the flowers may be great.
pollination can be of different types:
FERTILIZATION IN PLANT
a. Hydrophilous Flowers: These flowers are pollinated
by water. The flowers are often very small and Fertilization occurs after successful pollination.
inconspicuous to other agents. They do not have Fertilization is the fusion of male gamete with female
any fragrance or too much color on their petals. The gamete to form a zygote. In flowering plants,
pollen is adapted to float in water. fertilization is termed double fertilization because the
two male nuclei in the pollen grain fuse with the egg
b. Zoophilous Flowers: In this type of pollination, the
and the polar nuclei to form the diploid zygote and the
pollinating agents are animals like human beings,
triploid endosperm.
bats, birds, etc. They have pollen that is designed to
stick onto the body of the animal so they can be Development of Pollen Grain
easily carried from one flower to another.
When a pollen grain develops from an anther, it Immediately following fertilization, the flower has
contains only one nucleus. This nucleus later divides to completed its reproductive function. Subsequent
form a generative nucleus and a tube nucleus. developments include:
Therefore, at the time of pollination, a pollen grain 1. The stamens, corolla, and calyx of the flower
contains two nuclei. A pollen grain has an outer thick fall off.
wall called the exine, surrounding an inner thin wall
2. The ovary enlarges and becomes a fruit
known as the intine. Immediately after pollination the
stigma secretes a sugary substance which stimulates 3. The ovary wall develops into the pericarp
further development of the pollen grain. The outer 4. The ovule transforms into a seed
thick wall dissolves at the point of stimulus. From this 5. The integuments of the ovules form the testa
point, the inner thin wall protrudes and develops into a (seed coat)
pollen tube. The tube nucleus moves into the tube, now
called the pollen tube. It is believed that the tube 6. The zygote develops into an embryo
nucleus directs the growth of the pollen tube through 7. The endosperm nucleus forms the endosperm,
the tissues of the style towards the ovary. a food reserve that nourishes the embryo
Meanwhile, the generative (male) nucleus also enters (AOC)
the pollen tube and divides into two male gametes. WEEK 3: FRUITS
These two male gametes follow closely behind the tube Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students
nucleus and will be used in fertilization upon reaching should be able to
the ovary. 1. Describe the structure of a typical fruit
Development of Ovule 2. Explain the various classifications of fruits
The ovules are located in the ovary, attached to the 3. Distinguish between fruits and seeds
placenta by a short stalk called the funicle. An 4. Name the different agents of seed dispersal
immature ovule contains a nucleus and cytoplasm
Seeds and fruits are the results of fertilization or sexual
surrounded by two protective layers known as
reproduction in plants. The ovary in angiosperms
integuments, leaving a tiny hole called the micropyle,
develops into the fruit whereas the ovules become the
through which the pollen tube enters.
seeds enclosed within the fruit. Seeds are found both in
At maturity, the ovule undergoes three nuclear gymnosperms and angiosperms. However, fruits are
divisions, resulting in the formation of eight nuclei in unique to angiosperms.
the embryo sac. Four at the micropylar end, and four at
The Fruit
the chalazal end. One nucleus from each end migrates
to the center and they fuse to form the polar A fruit is a matured ovary comprising of other parts. It
(secondary) nucleus. can also be defined as the seed-bearing part of a flower
which develops after fertilization. The primary purpose
The remaining three nuclei at the chalazal end each
of a fruit is to protect the seeds during development.
acquire a cell wall to become the three antipodal cells.
Also, fruits are the means by which flowering plants
The three nuclei at the micropylar end are arranged
disseminate their seeds.
with the egg cell (ovum) at the top and two synergid
cells below it. Structure of a Fruit
The ovule is now ready for fertilization. The pollen tube The fruit primarily contains two parts: the pericarp and
grows through the tissues of the style and enters the the seed. The pericarp layer is the outer wall of the
ovule through the micropyle. ovary from which the fruit developed. The pericarp can
further be divided into three layers:
Process of Fertilization in Flowering Plants
i. Exocarp: It is the outermost layer which is formed
Once the pollen tube reaches the embryo sac, the sac
from the outer layer or the epidermis.
wall dissolves at the point of contact to allow passage
for the male gametes. The tube nucleus degenerates. ii. Mesocarp: It is the second or the middle layer
One male gamete fuses with the ovum, forming a which is often juicy and varies in thickness in
zygote. Fertilization has thus occurred. The second different fruits.
male gamete fuses with the secondary (polar) nucleus, iii. Endocarp: It is the innermost layer and also is
forming an endosperm nucleus. This is referred to as different in different kinds of fruits.
double fertilization, a unique feature of flowering Types of Fruits
plants.
Fruits can be classified based on their mode of
Post Fertilization changes in a flower development or based on their formation/occurrence
on the stalk.
Based on their Mode of Development;
True Fruits: Fruits that are formed solely from the ovary 8. Achene: Single-seeded and the seed coat is separate
with ovules inside it. No other part of the flower is from the fruit coat or pericarp. Example: magnolia.
involved in forming this type of fruit. e.g orange, 9. Caryopsis: Similar to the achene except that the seed
mango, cowpea. coat and the fruit coat are united or fused. Example:
False Fruits: Fruits formed from the ripened ovary along maize.
with some other flower parts like the base or 10. Samara: One-seeded fruit with wings. Example:
receptacle, the perianth, etc. e.g apple, cashew combretum.
Based on their Formation/Occurrence; 11. Nut: One-seeded fruit with a stony pericarp. It may
1. Simple Fruits – It can be further classified as contain a husk on its wall. Example: oak, chestnut,
fleshy or dry depending on their appearance. cashewnut.
2. Aggregate Fruits 12. Cypsela: Formed from a bicarpellary inferior pistil, it
3. Multiple Fruits is also one-seeded. Example: Tridax fruit.
1. SIMPLE FRUITS 2. AGGREGATE FRUITS
These fruits are formed from a single pistil only. They These fruits are developed from an aggregate or cluster
are further divided into fleshy and dry fruits based on of multiple separate pistils that are borne on a single
the nature of their pericarp and its layers. flower. This aggregate or group of fruits that are
developed from a single flower is known as an etaerio.
a. Fleshy Fruits
Example: raspberry, strawberry, kola.
Fleshy fruits, as the name mentions, have a fleshy and
3. MULTIPLE FRUITS
juicy pericarp. They are of many different types:
When an entire inflorescence develops into a single
1. Drupe: In this type of fleshy simple fruit, the exocarp
fruit, it is called a multiple fruit. Examples: pineapple,
is thin, the mesocarp is thick and juicy, while the
figs, mulberry, jackfruit.
endocarp is stony. Examples: mango, plum, and
coconut. SEED
2. Berry: In this type of fleshy fruit, the endocarp is Once fertilization occurs, the mature ovule begins to
absent and the seeds are scattered in the mesocarp. differentiate into a seed. A seed contains many parts,
Examples: grapes, banana, tomato. namely:
3. Pome: A false fruit as the thalamus forms a part of A. Seed Coat: Formed from the integuments of the
the fruit. Examples: apples, pears. ovule. The seed coat contains a hilum which is a scar
that represents the spot where the ovule was attached
b. Dry Fruits
to the ovarian wall. The seed coat is present all over the
Dry fruits do not have juicy or thick pericarps and are of seed except for a small pore called the micropyle, which
two types: is where the new plant will germinate upon finding a
favorable environment.
(i) Dehiscent Dry Fruits B. Cotyledons: Monocots contain a single cotyledon
These fruits burst on their own to release the seeds. whereas the dicots contain two cotyledons. The two
They are of many types: cotyledons act as appendages and help in absorption of
food from the endosperm.
4. Follicle: These fruits are formed from a single carpel
and dehisce along one suture or margin only. Example: C. Endosperm: It is a triploid tissue that is formed by
silk cotton. the fusion of one of the male nuclei (haploid) and the
vegetative nucleus (diploid). The endosperm provides
5. Legume: These fruits are formed from a single carpel nutrition to the developing embryo. Seeds can be
and dehisce along both sutures. Example: cowpea, classified as endospermic and non-endospermic seeds.
soyabeans.
 Those seeds that utilize the endosperm during
6. Capsule: Formed from multiple carpels. It has many embryo development completely are called non-
pores or chambers and dehisces by splitting into many endospermic seeds.
parts to release seeds. Example: okra, castor oil fruit.
 Seeds which do not completely utilize the
7. Siliqua: Formed by two carpels and dehisces from the endosperm during the growth of the embryo are
base upwards with the seeds attached to the base called endospermic seeds.
itself. Example: mustard.
D. Embryo: Made up of a central axis that contains two
(ii) Indehiscent Dry Fruits ends—the root apex and the radicle, and the shoot
These fruits do not dehisce or burst to release the apex and the hypocotyl. The radicle gives rise to the
seeds. They are of many types:
primitive root, whereas the hypocotyl gives rise to the area comprising biotic and abiotic resources that
primitive shoot. support the survival of a particular species of
GERMINATION organisms.
Germination can be defined as the gradual There are three main types of habitats:
development of the embryo of a seed into a seedling or 1. Terrestrial habitat, subdivided into Marsh and
a young plant. Germination involves a series of changes swamps, Forest Habitat, Grassland habitat, Desert
of an embryo in a seed into a seedling. habitat, Mountainous habitat, etc
A developed seed with an embryo can remain intact for 2. Aquatic habitat, subdivided into Marine, Estuarine,
a period of time (with little cell activity) as long as they Freshwater
are dry and conditions for germination are 3. Arboreal habitat
unfavourable; once conditions for germination become
MARINE HABITAT
favourable, the seeds can germinate into seedlings.
Marine habitats are habitats that support marine life in
Types of Germination
oceans and seas. Some commonly found animals are
1. Epigeal germination: In this form, the cotyledons or whales, dolphins, sharks, octopus, starfish, seahorses,
seed leaves are carried above the soil surface. etc., and plants, seaweeds are the most common.
Dicotyledonous plants exhibit this form of germination.
Characteristics of Marine Habitat
2. Hypogeal germination: In this form, the cotyledons or
1. Marine habitat makes up the largest habitat in the
seed leaves remain below the soil surface during
biosphere (about 70% of the Earth's surface is covered
germination. Monocots exhibit this form of
by water)
germination.
2. The Marine habitat shows the greatest stability of all
Conditions Necessary for Germination
habitats as they do not undergo sudden changes in
i. Water: Moisture activates the cells and softens physical factors such as pH, temperature, etc.
the seed coat (testa), enabling the radicle and
3. Marine water comprises many kinds of dissolved
plumule to come out of the seed with ease.
ions, Na, K, Mg, and the likes. Marine water is salty in
ii. Warmth: Suitable temperature (optimum nature, making it alkaline with a pH of about 8.0-9.0 on
temperature) is the range required for the pH scale, especially near the surface.
germination. Any temperature below or above
4. Marine water has high salinity with an average
the optimum may destroy the seed or inhibit
salinity of 35 parts per thousand.
germination.
5. Marine water has higher density than freshwater,
iii. Oxygen: Seeds are living organisms and need
making it easier to float in seawater than rivers.
oxygen for cellular respiration.
6. Marine water temperature is inversely proportional
iv. Enzymes: Organic catalysts that speed up the
to its depth, that is, temperature decreases as depth
rate of metabolic reactions in the cells of
increases.
germinating seeds.
7. The concentration of oxygen is also inversely
v. Energy/food: Monocots store food in the
proportional to depth; oxygen concentration decreases
endosperm, while dicots store food in their
as depth increases.
seed leaves.
8. Waves are temporary movements of surface water of
Seed Dormancy
the sea. Waves are caused by wind blowing against the
This is a period of inactivity in a seed. During dormancy, wind blowing against the surface of the water and
growth and development are slow or nonexistent. moves in the direction the wind leads.
9. Tides are alternate rise and fall of the surface of the
WEEK 4: HABITAT sea at least twice daily; they are caused by water
Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students distribution resulting from the gravitational pull of the
should be able to: Earth by the Sun and Moon.
1. Define habitat Marine habitat can be categorized broadly as:
2. Explain the various zones in marine habitat 1. Pelagic region: open sea or water environment
3. Recognize the adaptive features of organisms in the 2. Benthic region: sea floor/bottom environment
Marine Habitat
Major Zones of the Marine Habitat
4. Construct a food chain in the Marine Habitat
The two major zoning are the vertical zone and
Habitat: A habitat can be defined as the space where an horizontal zone
organism lives. In ecology, a habitat is defined as an
A. Horizontal Zoning: this is zoning based on the depth (zooplankton) or plants (phytoplankton). Planktons are
of the sea floor. There are 6 zones under this zonation: mostly microscopic.
1. Supratidal Splash zone: this is the exposed zone of 3. Nektons: all the animals that can move smoothly
the marine habitat, it is above high-tide mark and is enough to overcome currents and actively swim in
wetted by the occasional splashing of water when water (nekton actually means "to swim"). The most
waves break at the shore. common animals that belong to it are, among
2. Intertidal Littoral zone: this zone is exposed at low vertebrates, many types of fish, reptiles (tortoises and
tides and submerged at high tides. This is the planktonic water snakes), sea mammals (whales, dolphins, sperm
zone with high photosynthetic activity due to high whales, etc.).
penetration of sunshine. Adaptation of marine plants and animals
3. Subtidal sublittoral zone: this zone is constantly Plants Adaptations: Plants such as seaweeds, algae,
underwater and is about 200m deep but still with sargassum, diatoms as found in the marine habitat
abundant sunlight, nutrient, and animal and plant life. expresses the following adaptive features;
4. The Bathyal zone: this is some 500m deep with low 1. Structures for attachments such as holdfast in
light penetration, low nutrients availability, and little seaweeds, Rhizoids as seen in some phytoplankton.
oxygen supply. The water is dark and cold, therefore, 2. Mucilaginous cover to withstand high salinity and
this zone is not so favorable for life. prevent desiccation as seen in some seaweeds.
5. The Abyssal zone: about 7,000m deep, this zone is 3. Floating devices for buoyancy such as divided leaves
featured with low to insignificant light penetration, low in seaweeds, small size to large surface area in algae, air
temperature, high pressure, and low oxygen supply. spaces in tissues as seen in planktons, air bladder as
Photosynthesis does not occur in this zone; hence seen in some species of planktons.
producers are mostly chemosynthetic in nature.
4. Chlorophyll for photosynthesis in algae.
6. The Hadal zone: this is a whooping depth of over
Animal Adaptations: Animal species such as barnacles,
7,000m; it makes up for the ocean floor with no light
fishes, crustaceans expresses the following adaptive
penetration, very low temperatures, high pressure, and
features to survive in the marine habitat;
little existence of life.
1. Structures for attachment:
B. Vertical Zoning: this is zoning based on the
penetration of light and/or water depth. There are 3 i. Protection mantle for attachment to rocky
zones: shores and water retention as seen in barnacles
1. Euphotic zone (photic zone): this is the zone most ii. Tube feet (suction pods) for attachment as seen
exposed to sunlight, it is 200m deep. Majority of marine in starfishes
life is found in the euphotic zone because of the iii. Cilia for holding on to prey while feeding
presence of sunlight that enables phytoplankton to iv. Powerful claws for holding onto food as seen in
carry out photosynthesis. shrimps.
2. Dysphotic zone (twilight zone): this is a region of dim 2. Hardy exterior to protect internal organs and prevent
light. The intensity of light penetrating this zone is too desiccation:
low for photosynthesis; mainly consumers and
decomposers are found in this region. i. Shells as seen in crabs, prawns, lobsters, and
crayfish.
3. Aphotic zone (midnight zone): characterized by cold
and dark water, this is the bottom of the seas and 3. Osmoregulatory structures:
oceans. No light penetrates this depth, and there are i. Reduced or no kidney to retain urea to cope
very few living organisms. with salinity as seen in cartilaginous fishes
Distribution of Organisms in Marine Habitat: ii. Salt-secreting glands in gills or eyes to maintain
Animals in the marine habitat can be classified into 3 salt balance as seen in bony fishes.
broad categories: 4. Fins for stability in the water as seen in whales and
1. Benthos: refers to organisms that live on the bottom some other fish species.
of the ocean floor, they can either be stationary (such 5. Pressure-detecting organs to detect pressure change
as corals and sponges) or move (such as worms, some in the water as seen in whales and some species that
types of fish, and many mollusks). dive into high-pressure depths.
2. Planktons: refers to a population of species that live 6. A thick layer of dermal fat for insulation and food
suspended in the mass of water and are easily carried reservoir as seen in whales.
by sea currents. They can either be animals
7. Some neritic dwellers can burrow fast into the mud 4. White mangrove (Avicennia nitida): It has
to protect them against predators, strong waves or tide pneumatophores (breathing roots) that allow for gas
such as seen in crabs. exchange in waterlogged soils.
8. Animals species that dwell in supratidal and intertidal Animal Species and their Adaptive Features
zones possess lungs for breathing to survive low tides 1. Mosquito larvae and pupae: They possess breathing
as seen in periwinkles. tubes or siphons that allow them to breathe at the
Example of Marine Habitat Food Chain: water's surface.
Diatom → Crab → Fish 2. Crabs: They can burrow into the mud for protection
Diatom → Zooplanktons → Tilapia → Shark and have strong shells that protect them from
predators.
3. Water snails and shrimps: They can burrow into the
WEEK 5: AQUATIC HABITAT mud to escape desiccation or predators.
Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students
4. Mudskippers: They have fins adapted for crawling on
should be able to:
land and swimming in water, allowing them to move
1. Describe estuarine habitat between aquatic and terrestrial environments.
2. Outline the characteristics of estuarine habitat
5. Fishes: Some fish, like Tilapia, have swim bladders
3. Name two types of freshwater habitat that provide buoyancy and allow them to conserve
4. Explain the energy flow in freshwater habitat energy while swimming.
5. Construct a food chain in freshwater Food Chain in Estuarine Habitats
Estuarine food chains often involve multiple trophic
levels, with phytoplankton and detritus serving as
ESTUARINE HABITAT primary producers. Examples of estuarine food chains
include:
An estuary is a body of water formed at the coast
where freshwater flowing towards the sea mixes with 1. Detritus → Worms → Snails → Birds
seawater flowing inland. Estuarine habitats include 2. Diatoms → Shrimps → Fishes
deltas, lagoons, and bays. 3. Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Fish → Birds
Characteristics of Estuarine Habitat
1. Unstable salt level: the salinity of estuaries fluctuates FRESHWATER HABITAT
throughout the year
This is a body of water formed mainly from inland
2. Lower specific gravity than that of the sea waters containing little or no salt. There are two types
3. High turbidity due to frequent disturbances of freshwater habitat based on mobility:
4. The water is shallow 1. Lotic freshwaters: i.e., running waters that flow
5. Low diversity of species continuously in a specific direction. Examples include
rivers, springs, and streams.
6. Have a high level of nutrients
2. Lentic freshwaters: i.e., stagnant waters that do not
7. Low oxygen content
flow. Examples include lakes, ponds, puddles, swamps,
Plant Species and their Adaptive Features and dams.
1. Planktons (diatoms): They possess air spaces or Characteristics of Freshwater Habitat:
vacuoles that provide buoyancy, allowing them to stay
1. Low or no salt content with a salinity of less than 5
afloat in water. Some may have appendages or
parts per thousand
structures for attachment.
2. They are usually small in size compared to Estuaries
2. Algae: They possess chlorophyll for photosynthesis
and Marine habitats
and often have adaptations such as small size or large
surface area to maximize light absorption. 3. Oxygen concentration is high, especially at the
surface
3. Red mangrove (Rhizophora racemosa): It has stilt
roots that provide support and allow for gas exchange 4. The water is shallow, hence sunlight penetrates to
in low-oxygen environments. The seeds of red the bottom
mangrove germinate while still on the parent plant 5. Temperature varies with seasons and depth
(vivipary), which helps establish the seedlings in the 6. Water currents affect the distribution of organisms,
challenging mangrove environment. salts, and gases, especially in lotic freshwaters
7. It has seasonal variation, i.e., decreasing or drying up Marshy habitat is defined as a lowland habitat that is
in the dry season and increasing in the rainy season usually flooded or water-logged all the time. Naturally,
Major Ecological Zones of Freshwater Habitats grasses and shrubs grow in marshes, but when trees
grow there, it is called a swamp. Marshes are often
1. Littoral zone: The shallow area near the shore, where
regarded as a transition between aquatic and terrestrial
sunlight penetrates and photosynthesis occurs. Plants
habitats.
and animals that live in this zone include water lilies,
duckweed, and fish. General Characteristics of Marshes and Swamps:
2. Benthic zone: The deeper area of the freshwater 1. Marshes have wet, soft, waterlogged, and poorly
habitat, where rooted vegetation is absent. Plants and aerated soil.
animals that live in this zone include water lilies (with 2. Marshes are Lowland habitat that encourages
roots in the mud), protozoa, and fish. waterlogging.
Adaptive Features of Plants in Freshwater Habitats 3. The presence of stagnant water, especially during the
1. Water lily (Nymphaea): Air bladders and expanded dry season.
shape help keep the plant afloat. 4. The ground are flooded most times.
2. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia): Cavities and 5. Due to the stagnant water, there is a high rate of
intercellular air spaces provide buoyancy. organic decomposition, leading to a decrease in oxygen
3. Spirogyra: Mucilaginous cover protects the plant in content and the prevalence of foul-smelling gases such
water. as hydrogen sulfide.
Adaptive Features of Animals in Freshwater Habitats Types of Marshes
1. Protozoa: Contractile vacuoles help with There are two major types of marshes:
osmoregulation. Freshwater Marshes:
2. Tilapia fish: Swim bladder provides buoyancy, and Freshwater marshes occur on land, just beyond the
gills allow for respiration. limits of saltwater marshes and beyond areas
3. Duck: Webbed feet and serrated beak aid in influenced by tides. Freshwater from rivers overflows
locomotion and feeding. the riverbanks, flooding the adjoining lowlands and
resulting in the formation of freshwater marshes.
Food Chain in Freshwater Habitat
Saltwater Marshes:
Examples of food chains in freshwater habitats include:
Saltwater marshes occur along coastal areas and are
1. Diatoms → Fish fry → Tilapia
influenced by tides. The salty water from the ocean
2. Detritus → Worms → Shrimps → Birds mixes with freshwater from rivers to form brackish
3. Spirogyra → Tadpoles → Carps → Kingfishers water. The tidal action causes the flooding of adjoining
lowlands with brackish water, resulting in the formation
of saltwater marshes.
WEEK 6: TERRESTRIAL HABITAT
Plants found in Marshes and swamps: Grasses, sedges,
Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students
and reeds or rushes. Papyrus and rice, raphia palm,
should be able to:
mangrove trees, duckweed.
1. Recognize types of marshes
Animals found in Marshes and swamps: Invertebrates
2. Give examples of plants and animals found in marshes
such as worms, crustaceans, crabs, insects, and
3. Highlight the characteristics of a forest mollusks. Vertebrates such as frogs, turtles, snakes,
4. Give examples of the plants and animals in the forest with alligators, and certain mammals.
their adaptive features
Adaptive Features of Organisms found in Marshes:
Terrestrial habitat simply refers to life on land. The
1. Marsh plants have well-developed large
major factors affecting the nature of terrestrial habitats
interconnecting air spaces in their bodies which
include, but are not limited to:
transport air that diffuses in through the leaves to the
1. Nature of Soil 2. Rainfall 3. submerged roots.
Temperature
2. The animals have characteristic features which
There are four major groups of Terrestrial Habitat, enable them to combat the low-oxygen content, wide
they include: fluctuations in salinity, and periodic exposure and
(a) Marshes and Swamps (b) Forest flooding of the habitat.
(c) Savanna or Grassland (d) Arid land MANGROVE SWAMPS
MARSHES AND SWAMPS These are forests common in Nigeria. They are forests
of broad-leaved trees.
Common mangrove trees include: Avicennia (white The Rain Forests plant community:
mangrove), Rhizophora (red mangrove), Pandanus Unlike other forests, the rain forest has many types of
(screwpine), Raphia trees, timber trees like mahogany, gaboon, obeche,
Animals found in the Mangrove Swamp forests: abura, limba, cola, iroko, and djave nut, African tulip.
Polychaeta worms, oysters, mussels, barnacles, prawns, Other plants include shrubs, climbers, epiphytes and
shrimps, and mudskippers. parasitic plants.
Adaptive features of Mangrove Swamp Organisms: Adaptive features of Rain Forest Plants:
1. The roots of Mangrove plants are shallow and spread 1. Due to the dominance of trees in the forests, the
out over a large area to help anchor in the muddy trees grow very tall in search of sunlight.
substratum. 2. The trees possess thin barks in order to fasten
2. The roots of mangrove plants have many devices for gaseous exchange as well as transpiration.
taking in oxygen. 3. The epiphytes possess aerial roots in order to absorb
3. Mangrove plants concentrate salts in their cells and moisture.
reduce water loss by transpiration. 4. The trees possess buttress roots for strong
4. The seeds of mangrove plants are viviparous. anchorage.
5. The trees also possess broad leaves in order to
B. FORESTS increase the rate of transpiration.
A forest is an extensive community of plants dominated The Rain Forests Animal community:
by tall trees. The luxuriant forest vegetation supports rich animal
Climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature, have life. The animals live at different levels.
distributed the forest habitats into three biomes, a. Forest ground-dwellers: These include animals that
namely tropical rain forests, temperate deciduous live in the soil, in the leaf-litter covering the floor,
forests, and coniferous forests. and above the leaf-litter.
General Characteristics of the Rain Forest: b. Arboreal dwellers: These are animals that live at
1. Presence of very tall trees of about 40m and above various vegetation levels above the ground. They
spanned out in continuous layers of up to 30m are more varied and abundant than the ground-
dwellers because most of the food is found in the
2. Zonation of the forests. This zonation is also known
vegetation layers above the ground.
as stratification.
Adaptive features of forest animals:
3. Presence of canopies, formed by the shape and
arrangement of the trees 1. They have specialized structures for feeding.
4. Ample rainfall making water easily available to living 2. The large ground-dwelling mammals are usually
organisms smaller and slender than the grassland relatives.
5. The air is humid 3. Ground-dwellers have better sense of hearing than
sight.
6. The plant community has luxuriant growth resulting
in dense growth of tall trees with thick foliage 4. Possession of specialized structures for climbing and
moving about above the ground by arboreal dwellers.
7. The luxuriant forest vegetation, in turn, supports a
rich animal life 5. Development of wing-like structures for gliding.
Rain Forest Stratification 6. Protective coloration: certain forest animals have
devised means of blending their skin color to the color
The rain forest has five main vegetation or strata or
of the environment for protection.
layers:
7. They move about in herds for protection from
1. The ground layer or forest floor: made of non-woody
predators.
herbs, mosses, liverworts, lichens, and fungi
2. The lower layer or shrub layer: made of shade-loving
dwarf trees of about 1-5 meters in height WEEK 8: TERRESTRIAL HABITAT (cont’d)
3. The middle layer: made of smaller trees with Learning Objectives: By the end of this lesson, students
elongated narrow crowns should be able to:
1. Define grassland.
4. The upper layer: consisting of tall trees whose crowns
form a continuous canopy 2. State the adaptations of plants and animals in grassland
communities.
5. The emergent trees: which come up above the
3. Describe the characteristics of arid land.
canopy at intervals
  Baobab: Stores water in succulent trunk
 Acacia: Long roots for groundwater
 Shea butter tree: Thick bark for fire and drought
GRASSLAND / SAVANNA HABITATS protection
A grassland or savanna is a plant community dominated  Elephant grass: Water-storing stems, strong roots
by grasses, with short and scattered trees and shrubs. It  Palm: Thick bark for fire resistance
is typically found between forested regions and deserts Adaptive Features of Animals in the Grassland
or arid zones.
(1) Rats: These animals burrow into the soil to avoid
Types of Grasslands: excessive heat of the sun and fire.
There are two major types of grasslands: (2) Zebras and giraffes: Due to their body colours, they
1. Tropical Grassland (Savanna): can camouflage and their presence among tall greenish-
The tropical grassland is located around the Equator, brown grasses and trees will make them undetectable
i.e. between 5° and 20° North and South of the (3) Lions, tigers and leopards: These animals have
Equator. Areas where this grassland is found include powerful jaws and teeth for attacking other animals.
Africa where it is called savanna, in Brazil where it is They also have a high sense of smell to enable them
called campos, and in South America where it is called detect their prey.
ilanos. (4) Kangaroos: Kangaroos possess long legs to help
In Nigeria, the savanna has three major belts. These are them escape from danger. They also have pockets of
Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and Sahel savanna. The flesh to shield their young ones from hot weather and
luxuriant nature of the grassland decreases northwards attack
from Guinea to Sudan and finally to Sahel savanna. (5) Elephants and lions: These animals move in group or
2. Temperate Grassland: herd which enables them to achieve strength in
Temperate grassland is found in the interior continents numbers
of Asia, North America, South America where the (6) Termites: They live in anthills, thereby protecting
grasses appear to be uniform. In Central Europe and themselves from danger and unfavourable climate. The
Russia, the grassland is called steppe, in North America, anthill gives termites air-conditioned nests which have
it is called prairies, in Argentina it is called pampas, in cooling effects on them.
South Africa, it is veld and in Australia, it is called Food Chains in Grasslands:
downs.
1. Grass → Grasshoppers → Lizards → Snakes
Characteristics of Grasslands:
2. Grass → Zebras → Lions
i. Predominance of grasses
3. Grass → Grasshoppers → Toads → Birds
ii. Presence of short but scattered trees
Climatic Factors Affecting Grassland Habitat:
iii. Absence of stratified canopies
(1) High temperature: The grassland is affected by
iv. Presence of fire-resistant trees extremes of temperatures which range from 21 to 30°C.
v. Small size of leaves to aid the plants in reducing The annual temperature range is 11°C
the rate of transpiration. (2) Moderate rainfall: The grassland has an annual
vi. Presence of drought-resistant trees: Most trees in rainfall of about 600 to 1500mm. It has seasonal
the savanna as a result of reduced rainfall are conventional rainfall.
capable of resisting prolonged drought. (3) Fertile soil: Soil in grassland is always very fertile as
vii. Presence of underground stems to enable them most of the nutrients are not leached or eroded
survive the harsh climatic conditions. because of low rainfall.
viii. Presence of deep rooted plants to enable them to (4) Low relative humidity: The relative humidity of this
reach out for water in the soil. habitat is low because of high temperature and low
ix. Presence of deciduous plants which shed their rainfall.
leaves during the dry season to prevent excessive (5) Light intensity: Light intensity is very high since
loss of water through transpiration. there is little vegetation to shield its rays. Also,
x. Presence of trees with modified leaves to enable photosynthetic activities are high in this habitat
them adapt to the environment. ARID LAND OR DESERT HABITATS
Plant Adaptations: Deserts or arid lands are areas with very low rainfall
 Spear grass: Rhizomes resist heat and drought and high evaporation. These regions receive less than
25 cm of rain annually.
Types of Deserts: 3. Plants → Ants → Scorpions → Snakes
A. Hot deserts: Hot deserts of the world are located on Climatic Factors affecting arid land: Extreme
the western coasts of the continents with latitude 15° temperature, Very low rainfall, intense sunlight, Strong
to 30° North and South of the equator. Examples of hot winds, Low humidity
deserts are Sahara Desert (North Africa), Arabian Desert
and Kalahari Desert (South Africa), Great Australia
Desert (Australia) and Atacama Desert of South WEEK 9: ECOLOGY OF POPULATION
America. OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, students should be
able to:
B. Cold deserts: Cold deserts are located or found in the
interiors of the continents around 45° to 60° North and 1. Explain ecological succession.
South of the equator. The desert is found in interior of 2. Describe the process of ecological succession.
Eurasia. North America and in Patagonia (South 3. Analyze the factors that may cause over crowding
America). 4. Identify the measures adopted in nature to avoid
Characteristics of Arid Land (Hot Deserts): overcrowding.
 Very low rainfall (<25 cm/year) ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
 High daytime and low nighttime temperatures Ecological succession is a gradual and orderly process of
 Presence of sandy or rocky soil change or replacement in plant and animal
communities in a given area over a period of time. This
 Intense sunlight change modifies the conditions of the area through the
 Strong winds due to sparse vegetation activities of the organisms until a climax or stable
 Scanty vegetation: mostly short, thorny, or community is established.
shrubby In simpler terms, it is the sequence of changes that
 Low relative humidity occur in plant communities over time until a stable or
climax community forms. This process typically begins
 Presence of drought-resistant (xerophytic) plants
in a newly formed, open, or barren habitat—such as
Plant Species Examples: Cactus, Acacia, Baobab, Wiring abandoned farmland or areas affected by natural
grass, Date palm, Euphorbia spp. disasters or human activities. Pioneer species, or
Animal Species Examples: Camel, rats, lizards, snakes, primary colonizers, are the first organisms to colonize
toads, pocket mice, locusts, ants, butterflies, beetles the area. They usually have short life cycles and are
Plant Adaptations in Arid Land: replaced by more complex organisms as succession
progresses. These later species derive nutrients from
i. Cactus: No leaves, prickles, thick stem stores
the remains of earlier ones. The pace of succession is
water
initially rapid but slows down as the climax community
ii. Acacia: Deep roots for groundwater is approached.
iii. Baobab: Small, waxy leaves reduce A climax community is a stable or self-sustaining
transpiration community that remains relatively unchanged over
iv. Wiring grass: Narrow leaves minimize water time and is in equilibrium with the environment. In this
loss stage, vegetation and animal life reach their most
v. Oleander: Very deep roots for underground developed state, and the same species tend to recur
water annually.
Animal Adaptations in Arid Land:
i. Camel: Stores water, tolerates high Major communities in plant succession
temperatures, walks long distances without 1. Pioneers or Early Colonizers:
water Pioneers or early colonizers include the first group of
ii. Kangaroo rat: Burrows during day to conserve plants in a succession. They are small, lower plants and
water highly drought-resistant organisms. They require
iii. Lizards/Snakes: Scales reduce water loss minimum space, substratum or nutrients. They are
highly adapted to growing on bare surfisces, e.g. Algae,
iv. Locust: Waterproof body and dry waste to
lichens, mosses and liverworts.
conserve water
2. Developmental or Intermediate Communities:
Food Chain in Arid Land Habitat
These are series of communities which follow the
1. Plants → Desert rats → Snakes
pioneers with each succeeding communities more
2. Plants → Locusts → Wasps → Lizards complex than the one it replaced. They are less opened
 than the pioneers. They have more diverse species with viii. The death of pioneer organisms adds organic
greater numbers of individuals per species. Examples matter to the soil, enhancing its fertility and
are herbivorous plants such as Talinum, Ageratum, enabling new species to thrive.
Imperata cylindrica, Cyanotis, Sida acuta
3. Climax Community: OVERCROWDING
This is the terminal plant succession or stable Overcrowding is defined as a situation which occurs
community which establishes equilibrium with when a population in a given habitat increases beyond
ecological conditions within the locality. They are the the point where resources in the habitat—such as
most complex in the series of communities in a space and food—are not enough to support all the
succession. It has the greatest species diversity and organisms.
greater species population diversity. It has bigger life
Overcrowding occurs where there is an increase in the
forms, e.g. trees and shrubs.
population of a particular species beyond the carrying
capacity of an area. This reduces the space available for
each individual in the population. For example, a space
designed to accommodate only five rats can be said to
be overcrowded if ten or more rats live in it.
TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Population is defined as the total number of organisms
1. Primary Succession
of the same species inhabiting a particular area or
Primary succession occurs on surfaces that have never habitat at a particular point in time. In other words, it
supported vegetation. It usually begins with simple refers to the total number of individuals of the same
organisms and takes a longer time to reach a climax kind or species living together within a habitat or area
community. Examples of primary succession are found at a given time. The size of a population varies due to
in ponds, vegetation on rocks, mangrove forest, different factors, e.g. natality (birth rate), mortality
estuaries, etc. (death rate), immigration, and emigration. In an
Factors which can give rise to primary bare surfaces ecosystem, the community is made up of many
include: Erosion Deposition of sand dunes, Volcanic ash, populations of different species.
Landslides, Earthquakes, Thunderstorms, Hurricanes, Population density is defined as the number of
Tornadoes, Extreme drought, Mining or construction individual organisms per unit area or volume of the
activities habitat.
2. Secondary Succession Population density can be used to estimate the total
Secondary succession occurs on surfaces that were number of individuals in a population.
previously colonized but have been disturbed. It Factors That May Cause Overcrowding
typically starts with more complex organisms and
1. Increase in Birth Rate (Natality): A high birth rate in a
reaches a climax community faster. Examples:
limited area can result in overcrowding.
Abandoned farmland, Burnt grasslands.
2. Increase in Food Supply: A rise in food supply can
Characteristics of Ecological Succession
lead to a population boom, which may later cause
i. Succession begins in a barren, open area or overcrowding.
habitat.
3. Decrease in Death Rate (Mortality): If the death rate
ii. The process is orderly and follows a definite is lower than the birth rate, the population grows and
sequence. may lead to overcrowding.
iii. Pioneer species are hardy and have short life 4. Immigration: Movement of individuals into a habitat
cycles. increases the population and can cause overcrowding.
iv. As succession proceeds, these species are replaced 5. Lack of Dispersal: When seeds fall under the parent
by small herbaceous plants. plant and germinate there, overcrowding occurs due to
v. The rate of change is rapid at the start but slows as poor dispersal.
the climax is approached. 6. Social Habits: Social animals like termites, ants, and
vi. The number of successive communities depends bees tend to multiply in one location until it becomes
on local conditions such as soil (edaphic) and overcrowded.
topography. 7. Inadequate Space: When the space available is too
vii. Pioneer species are few and often make extensive small for the number of individuals, overcrowding
use of available resources. results.
8. Absence of Predators: Without predators to control Causes of Food Shortage
prey populations, some species can multiply The following factors are responsible for food shortage
excessively, leading to overcrowding. in a habitat:
Effects of Overcrowding 1. Overpopulation: An increase in population without a
1. Shortage of Space: Individuals have limited space to corresponding increase in food supply leads to food
move and live. shortage.
2. Shortage of Food: Food becomes scarce due to high 2. Poor Storage Facilities: Lack of or inadequate storage
consumption. facilities results in the spoilage or loss of excess
3. Competition: Increased competition for limited produce, which contributes to food shortage.
resources results; stronger individuals benefit more 3. Floods: Flooding can destroy crops and farmland,
than weaker ones. leading to decreased food production.
4. Anti-social Behaviour: Stress from overcrowding may 4. Drought: Severe drought results in poor agricultural
lead to fighting or even cannibalism among animals. productivity and low food output.
5. Spread of Diseases: Diseases spread more easily in 5. Pests: Crops may be attacked by pests such as
overcrowded areas, e.g. tuberculosis in humans. locusts, aphids, grasshoppers, and weevils, leading to
6. Preying on One Another: poor harvests and reduced food supply.
Scarcity of food may cause animals to prey on each 6. Diseases: Plant and animal diseases reduce
other. agricultural productivity, thereby contributing to food
shortages.
7. Death of Organisms:
7. Bush Burning: Bush burning destroys useful soil
Weaker individuals may die due to lack of food and
organisms, reduces soil fertility, and exposes the soil to
space.
erosion. These effects lower crop yields and can cause
Adaptations to Avoid Overcrowding food shortage.
1. Territorial Behaviour: Some animals, such as 8. Poor Harvests: Poor harvests of crops and animals
mammals, lizards, and birds, establish and defend due to any of the above reasons can result in food
territories to ensure adequate space, food, and mates. shortages.
2. Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits: Plants use wind, water, 9. Soil Infertility: Infertile soils, often caused by erosion
animals, and explosive mechanisms to spread seeds far or bush burning, reduce crop yield and lead to food
from the parent plant. shortage.
3. Emigration: Movement of individuals from one place 10. War: During wartime, attention is diverted from
to another helps reduce overcrowding. agriculture, leading to reduced food production and
4. Swarming: Some social insects (e.g. bees, termites) eventual food shortage.
leave an old colony to establish a new one elsewhere. Effects of Food Shortage on the Size of a Population
5. Production of Chemicals by Plants: Some plant roots 1. Competition: When food is limited, individuals must
produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of nearby compete for the available supply. This may lead to the
plants, reducing crowding. survival of the fittest, and in extreme cases, aggression,
6. Production of Canopies: Tall plants create canopies fighting, or cannibalism.
that block sunlight from lower plants, causing the 2. Emigration: Prolonged food shortages may cause
weaker ones to die off, thereby reducing overcrowding. animals—or even humans—to migrate from areas with
food scarcity to places where food is more abundant.
WEEK 10: FOOD SHORTAGE 3. Decline in the Rate of Reproduction: Food shortages
OBJECTIVES: By the end of this lesson, students should be can cause a decline in birth rates. For example, humans
able to: may avoid marriage or choose to have fewer children
due to economic hardship and uncertainty about
1. Define food shortage.
feeding a family.
2. Outline the government efforts to reduce food shortage.
4. Scarcity of a Particular Type of Food: The shortage of
3. Explain the effects of food shortage on a population.
specific types of food can create problems for species
In all habitats, producers provide the food that supports that depend on them. For example: Herbivores depend
all consumers, either directly or indirectly. In a well- directly on producers (plants) and may die off if plant
established habitat, the population sizes of various life is reduced. Carnivores are indirectly affected if their
species are usually adjusted to the quantity of food prey (herbivores) decline. Omnivores, however, can
available. However, certain factors can decrease the
food supply in a habitat, resulting in food shortage.
adapt more easily as they feed on a variety of food
sources.

MID TERM ASSIGNMENT