CHAPTER ONE
MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
Measurement is one of the most fundamental activities in engineering and science. It provides the basis
for observation, analysis, design, manufacturing, quality control, and research. In engineering practice,
no meaningful decision can be taken without reliable measurement. Instrumentation is the discipline
that deals with the development, application, and use of measuring instruments for monitoring and
controlling physical variables. Together, measurement and instrumentation form the foundation upon
which modern engineering systems operate, ranging from simple workshop operations to complex
automated industrial processes.
The rapid advancement of technology has increased the demand for accurate, reliable, and fast
measurement systems. Engineering components are now produced to very close tolerances, and
industrial processes are controlled automatically using feedback from measuring instruments.
Concept of Measurement and Instrumentation
Measurement may be defined as the process of determining the magnitude of a physical quantity by
comparing it with an accepted standard of the same kind. The result of measurement is expressed as a
numerical value multiplied by a unit. Instrumentation refers to the science and technology of
designing, constructing, calibrating, and using instruments to measure and control physical quantities
such as length, mass, time, force, pressure, temperature, and electrical variables.
In engineering systems, measurement serves several important purposes. It provides quantitative
information needed for design calculations, enables monitoring of operating conditions, ensures
compliance with specifications, and supports control actions in automated systems. Instrumentation
extends measurement by incorporating sensors, signal conditioning units, display devices, and control
elements to form complete measurement systems.
Standards of Measurement
Measurement is only meaningful when it is based on well defined and universally accepted standards.
Measurement standards provide a reference against which unknown quantities are compared. These
standards are established and maintained by national and international organizations.
Measurement standards can be classified into i primary standards, ii secondary standards, iii working
standards, and iv international standards. Primary standards are the highest level of standards and are
maintained by national laboratories. Secondary standards are calibrated against primary standards and
are used to calibrate working standards. Working standards are used for routine measurements in
laboratories, workshops, and industries. International standards are agreed upon by international bodies
to ensure uniformity of measurement across different countries.
Classification of Measuring Instruments
Measuring instruments can be classified based on various criteria, including method of operation,
nature of output, and mode of measurement.
Based on method of operation, instruments are classified into i mechanical instruments, ii electrical
instruments, and iii electronic instruments. Mechanical instruments operate using mechanical
principles such as levers, springs, and gears. Electrical instruments convert the measured quantity into
an electrical signal. Electronic instruments use active electronic components to amplify and process
signals, resulting in higher sensitivity and faster response.
Based on the nature of output, instruments are classified into i analog instruments and ii digital
instruments. Analog instruments provide a continuous output that varies smoothly with the measured
quantity, while digital instruments display discrete numerical values.
Based on the mode of measurement, instruments are classified into i deflection type instruments and ii
null type instruments. Deflection type instruments indicate the measured value by the deflection of a
pointer, whereas null type instruments measure the quantity by balancing it against a known value.
Factors Affecting Instrument Selection
The selection of a measuring instrument for a particular application depends on several factors. These
factors determine whether the instrument will perform satisfactorily under the given conditions.
Important factors affecting instrument selection include i required accuracy and precision, ii sensitivity
and resolution, iii range of measurement, iv speed of response, v environmental conditions such as
temperature and vibration, vi reliability and durability, and vii cost and maintenance requirements. The
selected instrument must be capable of providing accurate and repeatable measurements throughout its
service life.
Elements of a Measurement System
A measurement system consists of several functional elements working together to produce a
meaningful output. Each element performs a specific role in the measurement process.
The basic elements of a measurement system include i sensing element, ii signal conditioning or
amplifying element, iii signal conversion element, and iv data presentation element. The sensing
element detects the physical quantity and converts it into a usable signal. The amplifying element
increases the magnitude of the signal to a suitable level. The signal conversion element changes the
signal from one form to another when required. The presentation element displays, records, or
transmits the measured value.
Static Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
Static characteristics describe the performance of measuring instruments under steady state conditions.
These characteristics are essential for evaluating the quality and reliability of measurements.
Important static characteristics include i accuracy, ii precision, iii sensitivity, iv resolution, v linearity,
vi hysteresis, vii dead band, and viii zero stability. Accuracy indicates closeness to the true value, while
precision indicates repeatability. Sensitivity describes the responsiveness of the instrument. Hysteresis
refers to dependence of output on input history, while dead band represents a range of input over which
there is no output change.
Errors in Measurement Systems
No measurement is completely free from error. Measurement error is defined as the difference between
the measured value and the true value of the quantity.
Errors in measurement systems are classified into i gross errors, ii systematic errors, and iii random
errors. Gross errors arise from human mistakes such as misreading instruments. Systematic errors
occur due to instrument defects, environmental influences, or improper measurement techniques.
Random errors result from unpredictable variations in measurement conditions and cannot be
eliminated completely.
Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Systems
Dynamic characteristics describe the behavior of measuring instruments when the measured quantity
varies with time. These characteristics are particularly important in systems where rapid changes occur.
Key dynamic characteristics include i speed of response, ii time constant, iii damping ratio, iv step
response, and v frequency response. These parameters determine how quickly and accurately the
instrument responds to changes in input.
Step Response of Measuring Systems
Step response refers to the output behavior of a measuring system when the input changes suddenly
from one value to another. The step response provides valuable information about system stability and
speed.
For a first order system, the step response is characterized by an exponential rise to the final value
without oscillation. A second order system may exhibit oscillatory behavior depending on the damping
ratio. Parameters such as rise time, overshoot, and settling time are used to describe the response.
Frequency Response of Measuring Systems
Frequency response describes how a measuring system responds to sinusoidal inputs of varying
frequencies. It is used to evaluate system performance in the frequency domain.
The frequency response of a second order system is influenced by natural frequency and damping
ratio. Frequency response analysis is important in vibration measurement, control systems, and signal
processing applications.
Measurement of Force
Force measurement is essential in mechanical testing, structural analysis, and industrial process
control. Various methods are used to measure force depending on the application.
Force can be measured using i gravity balance method, ii fluid pressure method, iii deflection method,
and iv piezoelectric method. Each method operates on a different physical principle and has specific
advantages and limitations.
Measurement of Pressure
Pressure measurement is widely used in fluid systems, power plants, and industrial processes. Pressure
is defined as force per unit area.
Pressure can be measured using i piezometers and ii manometers. These instruments operate based on
hydrostatic principles and are commonly used for low pressure measurements.
Measurement of Strain
Strain measurement is important in stress analysis and material testing. Strain is defined as the ratio of
change in length to original length.
Strain can be measured using i mechanical strain gauges, ii optical strain gauges, and iii electrical
strain gauges. Electrical strain gauges are widely used due to their high sensitivity and suitability for
electronic signal processing.
Applications of Measurement and Instrumentation
Measurement and instrumentation are applied in virtually all branches of engineering. Applications
include quality control, process automation, condition monitoring, and safety systems.
In modern industries, measurement and instrumentation enable automation, improve efficiency, reduce
waste, and enhance product quality. The role of instrumentation continues to expand with advances in
digital technology and intelligent systems.
CHAPTER TWO
MEASUREMENT OF ENGINEERING PARAMETERS
This chapter discusses the principles and methods used in measuring key engineering parameters
including displacement, force, torque, strain, stress, time, speed, frequency, and temperature. Both
mechanical and electrical measurement techniques is examined.
Engineering practice involves the measurement of a wide range of physical parameters such as
displacement, force, stress, strain, time, speed, torque, and temperature. Accurate measurement of these
parameters is essential for design verification, performance evaluation, process control, and safety
assurance.
This chapter emphasizes both mechanical and electrical measurement techniques, highlighting their
principles of operation, constructional features, advantages, limitations, and areas of application. A
clear understanding of these measurement methods is vital, as they form the basis for practical work,
troubleshooting, and industrial applications.
Measurement of Displacement
Displacement is defined as the change in position of an object from a reference point. Displacement
measurement is fundamental in engineering because it forms the basis for measuring other parameters
such as velocity, acceleration, strain, and force.
Displacement measuring devices are classified into i mechanical displacement measuring devices and
ii electrical displacement measuring devices. Mechanical devices operate through direct physical
contact and mechanical amplification, while electrical devices convert displacement into an electrical
signal suitable for amplification and processing.
2.2 Mechanical Displacement Measuring Devices
Mechanical displacement measuring devices are widely used in workshops and inspection laboratories
due to their simplicity, reliability, and ease of use. Common mechanical displacement devices include
dial indicators, micrometers, and vernier instruments.
The dial indicator consists of a plunger, gear train, pointer, and calibrated dial. When the plunger
comes into contact with the workpiece, its movement is transmitted through the gear mechanism,
causing the pointer to deflect over a calibrated scale. The amount of deflection corresponds to the
measured displacement. Dial indicators are commonly used for checking flatness, run out, and
alignment of machine components.
2.3 Float as a Simple Displacement Measuring Device
A float is a simple mechanical device used to measure displacement indirectly by converting liquid
level changes into mechanical motion. The float rests on the surface of a liquid and moves up or down
as the liquid level changes.
The principle of operation of a float is based on buoyancy. As the liquid level rises, the float rises, and
its displacement is transmitted through a mechanical linkage to an indicating or recording mechanism.
Float type displacement devices are commonly used in level measurement applications such as fuel
tanks and reservoirs.
2.4 Electrical Displacement Measuring Devices
Electrical displacement measuring devices are preferred in applications requiring high sensitivity,
remote indication, and integration with control systems. These devices convert mechanical
displacement into electrical signals.
Electrical displacement devices include i potentiometers and ii Linear Variable Displacement
Transducers. These devices provide outputs that can be amplified, recorded, or used for automatic
control.
2.5 Linear Variable Displacement Transducer
The Linear Variable Displacement Transducer, commonly known as LVDT, is an electrical
displacement measuring device that operates on the principle of mutual induction. It consists of one
primary winding and two secondary windings symmetrically arranged on a cylindrical former, with a
movable ferromagnetic core.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, voltages are induced in the secondary
windings. The position of the movable core determines the magnitude of the induced voltages. The
difference between the secondary voltages produces an output proportional to displacement, while the
phase of the output indicates the direction of movement. LVDTs are widely used due to their high
accuracy, excellent repeatability, and frictionless operation.
2.6 Potentiometer as a Displacement Measuring Device
A potentiometer measures displacement by converting linear or angular motion into a change in
electrical resistance. It consists of a resistive element and a sliding contact known as a wiper.
As the wiper moves along the resistive track, the resistance changes proportionally to the displacement.
When connected in a voltage divider circuit, the output voltage becomes proportional to the
displacement. Potentiometers are commonly used in position feedback systems and control
applications.
2.7 Measurement of Force
Force measurement is essential in material testing, structural analysis, and mechanical system
evaluation. Force is defined as the product of mass and acceleration.
Methods of force measurement include i gravity balance method, ii fluid pressure method, iii
deflection of elastic elements, and iv piezoelectric method. Each method relies on a different physical
principle and is selected based on the nature of the force being measured.
2.8 Measurement of Torque
Torque is the turning effect of a force about an axis and is an important parameter in rotating
machinery. Accurate torque measurement is necessary for evaluating power transmission and machine
performance.
Torque can be measured using mechanical, electrical, and strain based methods. Mechanical torque
measurement involves measuring angular deflection of a shaft, while electrical methods use strain
gauges or electromagnetic principles to determine torque.
2.9 Measurement of Strain
Strain is defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length of a material when subjected to
stress. Strain measurement is critical in stress analysis, fatigue testing, and structural health
monitoring.
Strain can be measured using i mechanical strain gauges, ii optical strain gauges, and iii electrical
strain gauges. Mechanical strain gauges measure displacement mechanically, optical strain gauges use
light interference principles, and electrical strain gauges operate based on changes in electrical
resistance.
2.10 Measurement of Stress
Stress is defined as force per unit area and is a key parameter in mechanical design. Stress
measurement provides insight into load distribution and structural behavior.
Stress can be measured using photo elastic methods, which include i photo elastic models and ii photo
elastic coatings. These methods rely on the optical properties of materials under stress and are widely
used for experimental stress analysis.
2.11 Measurement of Time
Time measurement is fundamental to engineering systems involving motion, control, and
synchronization. Accurate time measurement ensures proper coordination of system operations.
Time can be measured using i electronic timers, ii measuring oscillators, and iii industrial timing
methods using stop watches and stop clocks. Electronic timers provide high accuracy and are widely
used in laboratories and industrial automation.
2.12 Counting Devices
Counting devices are used to measure the number of occurrences of events such as rotations, pulses, or
products passing a point. They are essential in production monitoring and control.
Counting devices are classified into i mechanical counters and ii electronic counters. Mechanical
counters operate through mechanical linkages, while electronic counters use digital circuits for high
speed and accuracy.
2.13 Measurement of Frequency
Frequency measurement is important in electrical and electronic systems, vibration analysis, and signal
processing. Frequency is defined as the number of cycles per second.
Frequency can be measured using i cathode ray oscilloscopes and ii digital frequency measurement
methods. Digital methods offer high precision and ease of interpretation.
2.14 Measurement of Speed and Angular Velocity
Speed and angular velocity measurement are essential in rotating machinery, vehicles, and control
systems.
Angular velocity can be measured using i mechanical tachometers, ii drag cup tachometers, iii
electromagnetic pulse techniques, iv photo electronic techniques, and v stroboscopes. Each method has
specific advantages depending on speed range and application.
2.15 Measurement of Temperature
Temperature measurement is vital in thermal systems, manufacturing processes, and environmental
monitoring. Temperature affects material properties and system performance.
Temperature can be measured using non electrical methods involving i expansion of liquids, ii
expansion of vapours and gases, and iii expansion of solids. These methods form the basis of
traditional thermometers used in many industrial applications.
2.16 Applications of Engineering Parameter Measurement
The measurement of engineering parameters is applied in quality control, machine condition
monitoring, process automation, and safety systems. Accurate measurement enables early detection of
faults, efficient control of processes, and improved product quality.