Chapter Notes: Cell: The Building Block of Life

1. Introduction - Where Did Life Begin?

Scientists widely believe that life originated in water. Some researchers think life may
have started in small water pools with changing environmental conditions - not in the
oceans. Hot springs are a good example of such environments.
In India, the hot springs of Puga Valley in Ladakh maintain very high temperatures
(nearly at the boiling point of water) even in cold climates. These conditions are
believed to be similar to early Earth, about 3.5 billion years ago.
The organisms living in these hot springs are mostly heat-loving bacteria called
thermophiles, which are unicellular. Scientists from the Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeosciences, Lucknow, found that calcium carbonate deposits formed rapidly
around these springs. These deposits may have:
Protected early organic molecules from harmful radiation
Helped form the first protective membrane - the barrier that defines a cell

2. What is a Cell?
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. Every
living thing - from the tiniest bacterium to a giant tree or a human being - is made up
of cells.
Types of organisms based on number of cells:

Type Meaning Examples

Unicellula Bacteria, yeast,

Made of only one cell
r amoeba

Multicellu Made of millions of cells Plants, fish, birds,

lar working together humans

Organisation in multicellular organi[Link] → Tissues → Organs → Organ

Systems
Example: Nasal pores + nasal cavity + trachea + lungs = Respiratory System
Even when cells are organised into tissues and organs, the cell remains the
fundamental unit of structure and function.

3. How to Study Cells?

Cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye. The limit of resolution of the
human eye is 0.1 mm - meaning two points closer than 0.1 mm cannot be seen as
separate.
 Size of the objects and its
visibility through unaided to
aided eye

Robert Hooke was the first person to observe a cell in 1665 using a self-designed
microscope (200-300X magnification). He observed a thin slice of cork and saw small
box-like compartments - he named them 'cells'.
Types of microscopes:

Microscope What it does

Uses visible light; used in school labs; magnifies

Light Microscope
using objective lens (10X, 40X) and eyepiece
 Microscope What it does

Uses a beam of electrons instead of light; shows cell

Electron Microscope structure at the nanometre scale (1 nm = 0.000001
mm); much more powerful than a light microscope

Light Microscope

Electron Microscope
Three features that have improved over time:
Resolution - measure of clarity (how clearly two close points can be seen)
Contrast - difference in brightness between different parts of an object
Magnification - how much larger the object appears

How to estimate the size of a cell (Activity 2.1):

Formula:
Estimated size of cell = Diameter of visible field (in µm) ÷ Number of cells along the
diameter
Example: If diameter = 5 mm = 5000 µm, and 25 cells are seen along the diameter:
Size of one cell = 5000 ÷ 25 = 200 µm
If eyepiece = 10X and objective = 10X → total magnification = 100X → the 200 µm
cell appears 100 times larger.
Unit conversion: 1 mm = 1000 µm (micrometre)
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

Try yourself: Who was the first person to observe a cell?

A Albert Einstein

B Robert Hooke

C Anton van Leeuwenhoek

D Louis Pasteur

View Solution

4. Structure of a Cell
Every cell has a boundary - the cell membrane - through which substances move
between the cell and its external environment. Even single-celled organisms exchange
materials through the cell membrane.
4.1 Cell Membrane - The Universal Feature of a Cell
The cell membrane (also called plasma membrane) is a thin boundary that:
Surrounds and protects the cell
Defines the individuality of a cell
Is selectively permeable - allows some substances to pass through while
blocking others

Structure - Fluid Mosaic Model:The cell membrane is extremely thin - about 7 to 10

nanometres (nm) thick. It is made of lipids (fats) and proteins.
E

Structure of cell membrane

It has a lipid bilayer - two layers of fat molecules with water-attracting heads
pointing outward and water-repelling tails pointing inward
Proteins are embedded in this bilayer and act like gatekeepers - controlling what
enters and exits
The molecules can move sideways, flip, and rotate → that is why it is called fluid
The molecules are arranged like tiles in a mosaic → that is why it is called mosaic

Together this is the Fluid Mosaic Model.

4.2 Osmosis and Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration. This happens even without a membrane.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water specifically, through a selectively permeable
membrane, from an area of more water (less solute / dilute) to an area of less water
(more solute / concentrated), until concentrations become equal.
Simple way to remember: In osmosis, water moves from dilute solution →
concentrated solution through a membrane.
Types of solutions and their effect on a cell:
 Solution
What it means Effect on cell
Type

Solute concentration outside Cell stays the same - no

Isotonic
= inside change

Solute concentration outside Water enters cell → cell

Hypotonic
< inside swells

Hypertoni Solute concentration outside Water leaves cell → cell

c > inside shrinks

Example from Activity 2.2 (Potato experiment):

 Experimental set-up, and initial
andfinal states of potato pieces
in (a) plain water, and (b) 20 per
cent salt solution

Potato in plain water (hypotonic) → swells (water enters by osmosis)

Potato in 20% salt solution (hypertonic) → shrinks (water leaves by osmosis)

In plants, water from soil enters root cells by the process of osmosis.
4.3 Cell Wall - The Outer Covering of Cells
Plants cannot move, so they need extra rigidity and support. That is why plant cells
have an additional layer outside the cell membrane called the cell wall.
Key features of the cell wall:
Present in plants, fungi, and bacteria - absent in animal cells
Made primarily of cellulose (a carbohydrate made of many glucose units)
Rigid but permeable - water and dissolved minerals can pass through
Helps leaves and flowers stay firm, maintains shape, keeps plants upright
What happens when a plant cell loses water (osmosis)?
Plant cells placed in concentrated sugar solution lose water → inner content
shrinks
But the outer boundary (cell wall) stays the same - it holds the shape
The cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall - this is called plasmolysis

Animal cells (e.g., cheek cells) have no cell wall. When placed in concentrated
solution, they simply shrink because there is no rigid wall to maintain shape.
Without a rigid cell wall, animal cells can change shape freely - this is actually
useful. It allows animal cells and tissues to move and flex.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

Try yourself: What is the main topic discussed in the text?

A Cell division

B Structure of a cell

C Functions of cells

D Types of cells

View Solution

5. The Cell Interior - A Coordinated Working System

Every cell has three basic parts:
1. Cell membrane - selectively permeable outer boundary
2. Cytoplasm - semi-fluid, jelly-like substance that fills the cell
3. Nucleus - the control centre of the cell

In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm also contains organelles - small specialised

structures that each perform a specific job. Think of a cell as a tiny factory where each
organelle is a department doing its own work.
5.1 Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Characteristics Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryo

No well-defined nucleus (only Well-defined nucle

Nucleus
nucleoid region) membrane

Diameter 1 to 10 µm 10 to 100 µm

Membrane-bound
Absent Present
organelles

Examples Bacteria Plant cells, animal c

Pro = primitive, karyon = nucleus → prokaryotic = primitive nucleusEu = true, karyon

= nucleus → eukaryotic = true nucleus
In prokaryotic cells, most activities happen directly in the cytoplasm. Their DNA is
present as a single circular molecule in a region called the nucleoid (not enclosed by
a membrane).

5.2 Cell Organelles in Detail

A. Nucleus - House of Coded Instructions
The nucleus is the control centre of the cell. It contains the genetic instructions for all
cell activities.
Structure:
Surrounded by a double-layered nuclear membrane with nuclear pores - allow
transfer of material between nucleus and cytoplasm
Contains the nucleolus - a dense round body inside the nucleus where ribosomal
subunits are made
Contains chromosomes - visible as rod-shaped structures only when the cell is
about to divide
Chromosomes are made of DNA + proteins
DNA contains the genetic information. Functional segments of DNA are called
genes
When the cell is not dividing, DNA exists as chromatin - an entangled mass of
thread-like material
When the cell is about to divide, chromatin organises into chromosomes

Interesting fact: Mature Red Blood Cells (RBCs) in humans have no nucleus. The
absence of a nucleus provides more space for haemoglobin, allowing more oxygen
to be transported. Because they have no nucleus, RBCs cannot repair or divide
themselves - their lifespan is only about 120 days.
In prokaryotic cells, DNA is present as a single circular molecule in the nucleoid region
- not enclosed by any membrane.
B. Ribosomes - The Protein Factories
Tiny structures found either freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum
 Function: Site of protein synthesis - they build proteins using instructions from
DNA
Present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

C. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Manufacturing Factory

The ER is a large organelle that spreads like a network through the cytoplasm. It is
continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
Function: Synthesis and transport of proteins, fats (lipids), and some hormones
Two types:

Type Appearance Function

Rough ER Rough - has ribosomes on its Protein synthesis and secretion (e.g.
(RER) surface pancreatic cells)

Smooth ER
Smooth - no ribosomes Synthesis and storage of fats (lipids)
(SER)

D. Golgi Apparatus - The Packaging and Shipping Centre

Made of stacks of flattened, sac-like structures
First observed in 1898 by Italian scientist Camillo Golgi in nerve cells of a barn
owl
Functionally linked to the ER and cell membrane
Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and/or lipids received from the ER
into vesicles - small membrane-bound packets - for transport, secretion, or lysosome
formation
Think of it as the post office of the cell - it receives, packages, and ships materials
to the right destinations.
E. Lysosomes - The Clean-Up System
Single membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes
Break down unwanted proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and even damaged parts of
the cell
Products of breakdown are released into the cytoplasm and reused in other
cellular processes
Keep the cell clean and healthy

Interesting fact: Human sperm cells contain lysosomal enzymes. When a sperm
meets an egg, these enzymes help break down the outer layer of the egg, allowing
fertilisation to happen.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

Try yourself: What is the cell interior described as?

A A random place

B A coordinated working system

C An empty space

D A simple structure

View Solution

F. Mitochondria - The Powerhouse of the Cell

Mitochondria supply the energy needed for most cellular activities.
Structure:
Surrounded by two membranes
Outer membrane - smooth and porous
Inner membrane - folded into finger-like projections called cristae, which
increase surface area for chemical reactions

Mitochondria

Function:
Break down glucose and other molecules during cellular respiration
Energy released is stored as ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) - the energy
currency of the cell
ATP is used to power almost all cellular activities

Why many small mitochondria instead of one giant one? Many small
mitochondria have a much greater total surface area than one large one - more
surface area means more space for chemical reactions and faster energy
production.
Special feature: Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes - suggesting they
were once free-living bacteria that got incorporated into larger cells during evolution.
G. Plastids - Centre for Food Synthesis in Plant Cells
Plastids are organelles found only in plant cells (and some algae). They are used for
food synthesis and storage.
Three types of plastids:

Type Pigment/Content Function

Chloroplas Green pigment -

Photosynthesis - makes food using sunlight
ts chlorophyll

Chromopla Yellow, orange, or red Give bright colours to flowers and fruits; at
sts pigments dispersing animals

Leucoplast
No pigment - colourless Store food materials like starch, oils, or pro
s

Structure of Chloroplast:
Double-membrane bound organelle (like mitochondria)
Contains a semi-fluid substance called stroma
Within stroma are disc-shaped membrane structures containing chlorophyll
Light energy is absorbed during photosynthesis; sugars and starch are stored in
stroma

Similarity with Mitochondria:Both mitochondria and plastids have their own DNA
and ribosomes - this suggests they share an evolutionary history with ancient
bacteria.
H. Vacuoles - The Organelles for Storage and Support
In plant cells:
Usually one large central vacuole surrounded by a single selectively permeable
membrane
Filled with a watery fluid called cell sap
 Stores water, minerals, sugars, and waste materials
By storing large amounts of water, the vacuole maintains pressure inside the cell
→ keeps the plant firm and upright
When a plant does not get enough water → vacuole loses water → cells become
less firm → plant wilts

In animal cells:
Vacuoles are present but much smaller
Help in temporary storage of materials

6. Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic - Cell Organelle Comparison

Bacterial Cell Plant Cell Animal Cel
Structure
(Prokaryotic) (Eukaryotic) (Eukaryotic

Cell membrane Present Present Present

Cell wall Present Present Absent

Cytoplasm Present Present Present

Well-defined nucleus Absent Present Present

Nucleoid Present Absent Absent

Membrane-bound
Absent Present Present
organelles

Chloroplast Absent Present Absent

Mitochondria Absent Present Present

Golgi apparatus Absent Present Present

Lysosomes Absent Rarely present Present

 Bacterial Cell Plant Cell Animal Cel
Structure
(Prokaryotic) (Eukaryotic) (Eukaryotic

Absent (small
Large central vacuole Absent Present
vacuoles)

7. How Do Normal Cells Grow and Divide?

When you get a cut on your skin, it heals in a few days. When hair falls out, new hair
grows. This happens because cells in our body can grow and divide to replace old,
dead, or damaged cells.
Cells grow only up to a certain size and then divide to form new cells - this is how our
body grows.
Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed from pre-existing cells. It
allows organisms to:
Grow
Repair damaged tissues
Reproduce

Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells divide, but eukaryotic cells divide in a more
controlled and orderly manner through a process called the cell cycle.
Every day, an estimated hundreds of billions of cells in our body are replaced - about
1% of the total number of cells in the body.
7.1 Types of Cell Division
There are two major types of cell division:
 Feature Mitosis

Number of daughter cells

2 4
produced

Chromosomes in daughter
Same as parent cell (full set) Half the
cells

Daughter cells identical to

Yes - genetically identical No - gene
parent?

Reprodu
Where it occurs All body (somatic) cells
ovaries in

Growth, repair, maintenance, asexual

Purpose Sexual re
reproduction

Mitosis in Simple Terms:

One parent cell → divides → two genetically identical daughter cells

 Each daughter cell gets the same DNA and the same number of chromosomes as
the parent
This ensures genetic information is maintained across all body cells
Every human begins as a single fertilised egg, which then undergoes mitosis
trillions of times to form all the cells of the body

Meiosis in Simple Terms:

One parent cell → divides twice → four daughter cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes
Occurs only in reproductive organs
In humans: meiosis in testes (males) produces sperm; meiosis in ovaries (females)
produces eggs
In plants: meiosis in anthers (male parts) forms pollen; in ovaries (female parts)
forms egg cells
When sperm and egg combine during fertilisation → original chromosome
number is restored
Because meiosis creates variation, children resemble but are not exactly like their
parents

What happens if cell division goes wrong?

Errors in mitosis → uncontrolled cell divisions → tumours and abnormal
number of chromosomes
Errors in meiosis → genetic disorders, developmental problems, reduced
fertility
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTION

Try yourself: What is the main topic of the text?

A How to repair cells

B How normal cells grow and divide

C How cells die

 D How diseases affect cells

View Solution

8. Cell Theory - The Unifying Principle of Biology

History of Cell Theory:

Yea
Scientist Contribution
r

166
Robert Hooke First observed cells in cork
5

Matthias Schleiden (German 183

All plants are made up of cells
botanist) 8

Theodor Schwann (German 183

All animals are made up of cells
zoologist) 9

Rudolf Virchow (German 185 New cells arise only from pre-
scientist) 5 existing cells

The Classical Cell Theory states:

1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living beings
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells

This unifies all of biology - from bacteria to humans - and explains life's continuity
through cell division.
Do Cells Grow and Reproduce Forever?
No. Cells grow and divide in a controlled way. They eventually die when they are no
longer needed, and are replaced by new cells. Every cell has a definite lifespan.
Contact Inhibition: In many animal cells, cell division stops when cells come into
contact with neighbouring cells. This is called contact inhibition - a natural "stop
signal."
Cancer cells lose this control and keep dividing uncontrollably → formation of
tumours.
Benign tumours - stay in one place
Malignant tumours - can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the
body

Programmed Cell Death (PCD): Cells also have natural ways of dying in a controlled,
genetically regulated manner. This is essential for normal development. For example,
when an embryo forms fingers, PCD eliminates the cells between the digits - without
this, we would have webbed hands.
Plant cells do not show contact inhibition because of their rigid cell walls - they follow
a different pattern of growth.

9. Scientists Spotlight
Camillo Golgi: Italian scientist who in 1898 first observed the Golgi apparatus in
nerve cells of a barn owl. Early microscopes could not resolve it clearly and many
doubted its existence. Electron microscopy confirmed it decades later. It was named
the 'Golgi apparatus' in his honour.
Arun Kumar Sharma: Famous Indian scientist known for his work on chromosomes,
plant taxonomy, evolution, and development. He invented useful lab methods to study
chromosomes in plants and received the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar award and Padma
Bhushan.
Gottlieb Haberlandt (Austrian botanist, 1902) proposed that any living plant cell,
even from a permanent tissue, can develop into a complete plant if given suitable
nutrients and conditions. This ability is called totipotency. His idea laid the
foundation for Plant Tissue Culture Technology.

Quick Revision - Key Terms Table

Term What it Means

Basic structural and functional unit of all living

Cell
organisms
 Term What it Means

Organism made of a single cell (e.g., bacteria,

Unicellular
amoeba)

Multicellular Organism made of many cells (e.g., humans, plants)

The minimum distance between two points that can

Limit of resolution
be seen as separate - 0.1 mm for human eye

Cell membrane / Plasma Thin, selectively permeable outer boundary of all

membrane cells

Selectively permeable Allows only certain substances to pass through

Movement of water through a selectively permeable

Osmosis
membrane from dilute to concentrated solution

Movement of particles from higher to lower

Diffusion
concentration (no membrane needed)

Outside has less solute than inside the cell - water

Hypotonic solution
enters the cell

Outside has more solute than inside the cell - water

Hypertonic solution
leaves the cell

Equal solute concentration on both sides - no net

Isotonic solution
water movement

Rigid outer covering of plant, fungal, and bacterial

Cell wall
cells - made of cellulose in plants

Model describing cell membrane as a flexible lipid

Fluid Mosaic Model
bilayer with proteins embedded in it

Prokaryotic cell Cell without a well-defined nucleus (e.g., bacteria)

 Term What it Means

Cell with a well-defined, membrane-bound nucleus

Eukaryotic cell
(e.g., plant and animal cells)

Control centre of the cell - contains DNA and

Nucleus
chromosomes

Region in prokaryotic cells where circular DNA is

Nucleoid
located (no membrane around it)

Chromatin Loosely arranged DNA + protein in non-dividing cells

Condensed, rod-shaped structures of DNA + protein

Chromosomes
visible when cell is dividing

Functional segments of DNA that carry genetic

Genes
information

Dense body inside nucleus - site of ribosomal subunit

Nucleolus
synthesis

Site of protein synthesis; present in both prokaryotic

Ribosomes
and eukaryotic cells

Endoplasmic Reticulum Network organelle for synthesis and transport of

(ER) proteins and lipids

RER Rough ER - has ribosomes; makes proteins

Smooth ER - no ribosomes; makes lipids and

SER
hormones

Packages and ships proteins/lipids; post office of the

Golgi apparatus
cell
 Term What it Means

Clean-up organelle - breaks down waste and

Lysosomes
damaged cell parts using enzymes

Powerhouse of the cell - produces ATP through

Mitochondria
cellular respiration

Finger-like folds of inner mitochondrial membrane -

Cristae
increase surface area

Adenosine Triphosphate - the energy currency of the

ATP
cell

Organelles found only in plant cells - for food

Plastids
synthesis and storage

Chloroplasts Green plastids - perform photosynthesis

Coloured plastids (yellow/orange/red) - give colour

Chromoplasts
to flowers and fruits

Colourless plastids - store food like starch, oils,

Leucoplasts
proteins

Green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light for

Chlorophyll
photosynthesis

Semi-fluid matrix inside chloroplast where sugars

Stroma
are stored

Storage organelle - large in plant cells, small in

Vacuole
animal cells

Cell sap Watery fluid in plant cell vacuole

 Term What it Means

Cell swollen with water (plants in hypotonic

Turgid
solution)

Cell lacking water (plants in hypertonic solution or

Flaccid / Wilted
drought)

Process by which new cells form from pre-existing

Cell division
cells

Cell division producing 2 identical daughter cells -

Mitosis
for growth and repair

Cell division producing 4 daughter cells with half

Meiosis
chromosomes - for sexual reproduction

Controlled, orderly process of eukaryotic cell

Cell cycle
division

Normal cells stop dividing when they touch

Contact inhibition
neighbouring cells

Mass formed by uncontrolled cell division (cancer

Tumour
cells lack contact inhibition)

Programmed Cell Death Controlled, genetically regulated process of cell

(PCD) death - essential for development

All organisms made of cells; cell is basic unit; new

Cell Theory
cells from pre-existing cells

Ability of a plant cell to develop into a complete

Totipotency
plant - basis of tissue culture