Chapter 1: Measurements Ans

1: Define physics.

Ans: Physics is the branch of science based on experimental observations and quantitative
measurements, concerned with the fundamental laws of the universe. It is the most basic branch of
physical sciences, and all other subjects of physical sciences revolve around physics like electrons around
the nucleus.

2: Write any four branches of physics.

Ans: Four branches of physics are:

1. Mechanics

2. Optics (Light)

3. Sound (Acoustics)

4. Electromagnetism

5. Heat & Thermodynamics

6. Atomic Physics

7. Nuclear Physics

8. Solid State Physics

3: Define physical quantities.

Ans: Physical quantities are the quantities which can be measured and have proper units. For example,
mass, length, time, distance, velocity, force, weight, momentum, work, power, etc. All laws and
equations of Physics can be expressed in terms of these physical quantities.

4: Distinguish between base quantities and derived quantities.

Ans:
Feature Base Quantities Derived Quantities

Definition Quantities which are independent and Quantities which can be expressed in terms of
cannot be expressed in terms of other fundamental quantities using product or
physical quantities quotient rules

Number Seven base quantities Many derived quantities

Examples Mass, length, time, temperature, current, Velocity, acceleration, momentum, force,
amount of substance, intensity of light work, power

5: Name the seven base quantities and their SI units.

Ans: The seven base quantities and their SI units are:

Base Quantity SI Unit Symbol

Mass kilogra kg
m

Length metre m

Time second s

Electric Current ampere A

Temperature kelvin K

Intensity of Light candela cd

Amount of mole mol

Substance

6: What is the International System of Units (SI)? When was it established?

Ans: The International System of Units (SI) is a common system of units introduced in 1960 at a general
conference on weights and measures held in Paris. It is an improved form of the MKS (Metre, Kilogram,
Second) system and has replaced CGS and FPS systems. It consists of seven base units, two
supplementary units, and a number of derived units.
7: Define derived units. Give an example using the product rule.

Ans: Derived units are the units of derived quantities obtained using arithmetical operations of product
or quotient rules on base units. Using product rule: when two or more units are multiplied, their
product gives a new resultant unit. Example: Volume = length × breadth × height, so unit is metre ×
metre × metre = m³.

8: Define derived units using the quotient rule with an example.

Ans: According to the quotient rule, when a unit is divided by another unit, their quotient gives a new
resultant unit. Example: Power = work/time, so unit = Joule/second = J/s. In base units: J = kg m² s⁻²,
therefore power unit = (kg m² s⁻²)/s = kg m² s⁻³ which is called watt (W) .

9: Write the derived SI units for force, work, and power in terms of base units.

Ans:

Quantity Derived In terms of Base Units

Unit

Force newton (N) kg m s⁻²

Work, Energy joule (J) N m = kg m² s⁻²

Power watt (W) J s⁻¹ = kg m² s⁻³

10: Define supplementary units. Name them.

Ans: Supplementary units are two units that could not find a place in base units nor in derived units in
the general conference for weights and measures held in 1960 in Paris. They are:

1. Radian - for plane angle (two-dimensional)

2. Steradian - for solid angle (three-dimensional) Both are geometrical units and dimensionless.
11: Define radian.

Ans: Radian is a two-dimensional plane angle. It is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a
circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle. Mathematically: θ = S/r (rad), where S is arc
length and r is radius. One complete revolution = 2π radians = 360°.

12: Define steradian.

Ans: Steradian is a three-dimensional solid angle. It is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a
sphere by a surface area equal to the square of the radius. Mathematically: θ = spherical area/r²
(steradian). The total solid angle around a point is 4π steradians.

13: Convert 1 radian into degrees.

Ans: F: 1 radian = 180°/π S: π = 3.14 C: 1 radian = 180/3.14 = 57.3° A: 1 radian = 57.3°

14: Write any four conventions for indicating SI units.

Ans: Four conventions for indicating SI units are:

1. Unit names should not be written with capital initial letters (newton, pascal, watt - not Newton,
Pascal, Watt).

2. Symbols of units named after scientists should be written with initial capital letters (N for newton,
Pa for pascal, W for watt).

3. One space must be left between the number and the symbol of the unit (2.3 m, not 2.3m).

4. Compound prefixes are not allowed (1 pm, not 1 μμm).

5. No full stop or punctuation marks should be used within or at the end of symbols.

6. Symbols of units do not take plural form (10 kg, not 10 kgs).

15: What is scientific notation? Give an example.

Ans: Scientific notation or standard form is a method of expressing extremely large or small values in
decimal form as a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by an appropriate power of ten. Example: The
number of molecules in one mole is written as 6.023 × 10²³, and the radius of hydrogen atom is 5.3 ×
10⁻¹¹ m.

16: Define prefixes. Give two examples.

Ans: Prefixes are specific letters placed before fundamental units to represent larger and smaller units
when the values of physical quantities are very large or very small. They are represented by fixed values
in the form of power of 10. Examples: 2000 g = 2 × 10³ g = 2 kilogram = 2 kg; 0.000001 m = 1 × 10⁻⁶ m = 1
micrometre = 1 μm.

17: Write the prefixes for 10⁻⁹, 10⁻⁶, 10³, and 10⁶.

Ans:

Factor Prefix Symbol

10⁻⁹ nano n

10⁻⁶ micro μ

10³ kilo k

10⁶ mega M

18: Define significant figures.

Ans: Significant figures are the number of accurately known digits and the first doubtful digit in a
measured value. For example, in the reported mass 1.53 kg, digits 1 and 5 are certain while 3 is
uncertain, so the value has three significant figures.

19: Write the rules for determining significant figures when zeros are involved.

Ans: Rules for zeros in significant figures:

1. Zeros between two non-zero digits are always significant (e.g., 2003 has 4 significant figures).

2. Zeros to the right of a significant figure may or may not be significant (6000 can have 1 to 4
significant figures depending on how it is written).

3. Terminal zeros in a number with decimal point are significant (0.2300 has 4 significant figures).

4. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit in numbers less than one are not significant (0.00123 has
3 significant figures).

20: How many significant figures are in 0.00254, 2.003, and 2.0?

Ans:

• 0.00254: The zeros are not significant. Only 2,5,4 are significant. 3 significant figures.

• 2.003: Zeros between non-zero digits are significant. 4 significant figures.

• 2.0: Zero after decimal is significant. 2 significant figures.

21: Define errors and uncertainties in measurement.

Ans: Errors and uncertainties are the doubts or inaccuracies that arise in measurement due to factors
such as:

1. The least count of measuring instruments

2. Quality and condition of the apparatus

3. Skill of the observer

4. Different recorded observations by the same apparatus

22: Distinguish between systematic errors and random errors.

Ans:

Feature Systematic Error Random Error

Nature Repeat in same magnitude and sign under Repeat in different magnitude and sign under
same conditions same conditions
Causes Zero error, poor calibration, incorrect Personal error, lack of sensitivity,
marking environmental factors

Remova Can be removed by using standard Minimized by taking average of multiple

l instruments measurements

23: Define precision of a measurement.

Ans: Precision of a measurement is associated with the least count of the measuring instrument. It
shows that precise measurement depends upon the resolution or limit of the measuring instrument.
Smaller the least count, more precise is the measurement. For example, a vernier caliper (0.01 cm) is
more precise than a metre rod (0.1 cm).

24: Define accuracy of a measurement.

Ans: Accuracy of a measurement is associated with the fractional uncertainty or relative uncertainty. It
depends upon the closeness of the calculated value to the actual value of the quantity. Smaller the
fractional uncertainty or percentage uncertainty, more accurate is the measurement.

25: The length of an object measured by a metre rod is 19.5 cm. Calculate its absolute uncertainty,
fractional uncertainty, and percentage uncertainty.

Ans: F: Absolute uncertainty = least count = ±0.1 cm Fractional uncertainty = least count/measured
value Percentage uncertainty = (least count/measured value) × 100 S: Measured value = 19.5 cm, least
count = 0.1 cm C: Absolute uncertainty = ±0.1 cm Fractional uncertainty = 0.1/19.5 = 0.005 Percentage
uncertainty = 0.005 × 100 = 0.5% A: ±0.1 cm, 0.005, 0.5%

26: How is total uncertainty calculated when two measured quantities are added or subtracted?

Ans: When two measured quantities are added or subtracted, their absolute uncertainties are added.
For example, if length = (39.8 ± 0.1) cm - (11.6 ± 0.1) cm = 28.2 ± (0.1 + 0.1) cm = 28.2 ± 0.2 cm.
27: How is total uncertainty calculated when two measured quantities are multiplied or divided?

Ans: When two measured quantities are multiplied or divided, their relative uncertainties (or
percentage uncertainties) are added. For example, if m = 60 ± 0.5 kg (0.8% uncertainty) and a = 5.0 ±
0.2 m/s² (4% uncertainty), then F = ma = 300 N with total percentage uncertainty 4.8%, so F = 300 ± 14.4
N.

28: How is total uncertainty calculated when a measured quantity is raised to a power?

Ans: When a measured quantity is raised to a power, the relative uncertainty is multiplied by that
power. For example, in area of cross-section A = πr², percentage uncertainty in area = 2 × percentage
uncertainty in radius. If r = 1.95 ± 0.01 cm (0.5% uncertainty), then area uncertainty = 2 × 0.5% = 1.0%.

29: Define dimensions of a physical quantity.

Ans: Dimensions are a method of analysis in which different physical quantities are expressed in terms
of their base quantities, such as mass [M], length [L], and time [T]. For example, velocity is expressed as
[M⁰LT⁻¹] showing it has zero dimension in mass, one in length, and -1 in time.

30: Write the dimensional formulas for velocity, acceleration, force, and work.

Ans:

Physical Quantity Formula Dimensional Formula

Velocity displacement/time [M⁰LT⁻¹]

Acceleration velocity/time [M⁰LT⁻²]

Force mass × acceleration [MLT⁻²]

Work force × displacement [ML²T⁻²]

31: State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

Ans: The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that for a physical equation to be correct, the
dimensions of all terms on both sides of the equation must be identical. If the dimensions of LHS and
RHS are the same, the equation is dimensionally correct. For example, in v_f = v_i + at, both sides have
dimensions [LT⁻¹].

32: Check the dimensional homogeneity of the equation v_f = v_i + at.

Ans: F: LHS = v_f = [LT⁻¹] RHS = v_i + at = [LT⁻¹] + [LT⁻²] × [T] = [LT⁻¹] + [LT⁻¹] = 2[LT⁻¹] S: 2 is dimensionless,
so RHS = [LT⁻¹] C: LHS [LT⁻¹] = RHS [LT⁻¹] A: The equation is dimensionally correct.

33: Check the dimensional homogeneity of E = mgh + ½mv².

Ans: F: LHS = E (energy) = [ML²T⁻²] RHS = mgh + ½mv² = [M]×[LT⁻²]×[L] + [M]×[LT⁻¹]² S: mgh = [ML²T⁻²],
½mv² = [ML²T⁻²] C: RHS = [ML²T⁻²] + [ML²T⁻²] = 2[ML²T⁻²] 2 is dimensionless, so RHS = [ML²T⁻²] A: The
equation is dimensionally correct.

34: Derive the dimensional formula for the moment of inertia from KE_rot = ½Iω².

Ans: F: KE_rot = ½Iω² ⇒ I = 2KE_rot/ω² S: Dimensions of KE_rot = [ML²T⁻²], ω = [T⁻¹] C: I = [ML²T⁻²]/[T⁻¹]²

= [ML²T⁻²]/[T⁻²] = [ML²T⁰] A: Dimensions of moment of inertia = [ML²T⁰]

35: Derive the formula for the time period of a simple pendulum using dimensional analysis.

Ans: F: Let T ∝ mᵃ ℓᵇ gᶜ S: [T] = [M]ᵃ [L]ᵇ [LT⁻²]ᶜ = Mᵃ Lᵇ⁺ᶜ T⁻²ᶜ LHS: [T] = M⁰L⁰T¹ C: Comparing: a = 0, -2c =
1 ⇒ c = -½, b + c = 0 ⇒ b = ½ T = k m⁰ ℓ½ g⁻½ = k √(ℓ/g) A: T = 2π √(ℓ/g) (constant k determined
experimentally as 2π)

36: Derive the formula for the speed of sound in a gas using dimensional analysis.

Ans: F: Let v ∝ Pᵃ ρᵇ S: [v] = [LT⁻¹], [P] = [ML⁻¹T⁻²], [ρ] = [ML⁻³] [LT⁻¹] = [ML⁻¹T⁻²]ᵃ [ML⁻³]ᵇ = Mᵃ⁺ᵇ L⁻ᵃ⁻³ᵇ T⁻²ᵃ
C: Comparing: a + b = 0, -a - 3b = 1, -2a = -1 Solving: a = ½, b = -½ v = k P½ ρ⁻½ = k √(P/ρ) A: v = √(γP/ρ)
(where γ = Cp/Cv, determined by Laplace as 1.4 for air)
37: Write three limitations of dimensional analysis.

Ans: Three limitations of dimensional analysis are:

1. It cannot determine the value of dimensionless constants (like 2π in T = 2π√(ℓ/g)). They must be
determined experimentally or mathematically.

2. It cannot be used for relations involving trigonometric, logarithmic, and exponential functions.

3. It does not indicate whether a physical quantity is scalar or vector (speed and velocity have same
dimensions [M⁰LT⁻¹]).

4. It cannot derive the exact form if the quantity depends on more than three physical quantities (M,
L, T).

38: Convert 20 m/s into km/h.

Ans: F: 1 m/s = 18/5 km/h S: v = 20 m/s C: v = 20 × (18/5) = (20 × 18)/5 = 360/5 = 72 km/h A: 72 km/h

39: Convert 220 km/h into m/s.

Ans: F: 1 km/h = 5/18 m/s S: v = 220 km/h C: v = 220 × (5/18) = (220 × 5)/18 = 1100/18 = 61.11 m/s A:
61.1 m/s

40: Express 0.62 × 10⁴ g using an appropriate prefix.

Ans: F: 0.62 × 10⁴ g = 6200 g S: 1000 g = 1 kg C: 6200 g = 6200/1000 = 6.2 kg A: 6.2 kg

41: Express 2 × 10⁷ m using an appropriate prefix.

Ans: F: 2 × 10⁷ m = 20,000,000 m S: 10⁶ m = 1 megametre (Mm) C: 20,000,000 m = 20 × 10⁶ m = 20 Mm

A: 20 Mm (megametres)
42: Express 4 × 10⁻⁵ s using an appropriate prefix.

Ans: F: 4 × 10⁻⁵ s = 0.00004 s S: 10⁻⁶ s = 1 microsecond (μs) C: 4 × 10⁻⁵ = 40 × 10⁻⁶ = 40 μs A: 40 μs

(microseconds)

43: Write 0.000036 in scientific notation.

Ans: F: Scientific notation requires a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10 S: 0.000036
= 3.6 × 10⁻⁵ A: 3.6 × 10⁻⁵

44: Write 140000 in scientific notation.

Ans: F: Scientific notation requires a number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of 10 S: 140000 =
1.4 × 10⁵ A: 1.4 × 10⁵

45: How many significant figures are in 32.900?

Ans: F: Terminal zeros in a number with decimal point are significant S: 32.900 has digits 3,2,9,0,0 C: All
five digits are significant A: 5 significant figures

46: How many significant figures are in 0.0007?

Ans: F: Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit in numbers less than one are not significant S: 0.0007
has digits 0,0,0,0,7 - only 7 is significant C: Only one significant figure A: 1 significant figure

47: Add 12, 13.5, and 15.432 and give the Ans with correct significant figures.

Ans: F: When adding, the Ans should have the same number of decimal places as the least accurate
measurement S: 12 has 0 decimal places, 13.5 has 1 decimal place, 15.432 has 3 decimal places C: Sum =
12 + 13.5 + 15.432 = 40.932 Least accurate is 12 (0 decimal places), so Ans should have 0 decimal places
A: 41
48: The radius of a rod is 0.24 cm. Find its cross-sectional area with appropriate significant figures.

Ans: F: A = πr² S: r = 0.24 cm (2 significant figures), π = 3.14 C: A = 3.14 × (0.24)² = 3.14 × 0.0576 =
0.180864 cm² With 2 significant figures (matching radius) A: 0.18 cm²

49: Find the dimensions of gravitational constant G from F = G m₁m₂/r².

Ans: F: G = F × r²/(m₁m₂) S: [F] = [MLT⁻²], [r] = [L], [m] = [M] C: [G] = [MLT⁻²] × [L²] / [M²] = [ML³T⁻²] / [M²]
= [M⁻¹L³T⁻²] A: [M⁻¹L³T⁻²]

50: Find the dimensions of spring constant k from F = -kx.

Ans: F: k = -F/x (magnitude) S: [F] = [MLT⁻²], [x] = [L] C: [k] = [MLT⁻²] / [L] = [MT⁻²] A: [MT⁻²] (or [ML⁰T⁻²])

Chapter 2: Vectors and Equilibrium Ans

1: Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities.

Ans:

Feature Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity

Definition Has only magnitude Has both magnitude and direction

Representation Ordinary number Bold letter or arrow over symbol

Addition Ordinary arithmetic Vector addition rules

Example Mass, length, time, speed Force, velocity, displacement, weight

2: Define vector. Give three examples.

Ans: A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Examples: force, velocity,
displacement, weight, acceleration, momentum, torque.

3: Define scalar. Give three examples.

Ans: A scalar is a physical quantity that has only magnitude and no direction. Examples: mass, length,
time, speed, work, energy, power, density.

4: How is a vector represented graphically?

Ans: A vector is represented graphically by a straight line with an arrow on one end. The length of the
line represents the magnitude of the vector (according to a chosen scale), and the arrow shows the
direction of the vector. The starting point is called the tail, and the end point is called the head.

5: Define null vector (zero vector).

Ans: A null vector or zero vector is a vector of zero magnitude and with arbitrary direction. It is denoted
by O. It is used to balance vector equations. For example, if A = B, then A - B = O.

6: Define unit vector. How is it represented?

Ans: A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is equal to unity (1) and has the same direction as that of
the given vector. It is represented by a bold face letter with a cap, e.g., Â, ĵ. The unit vector in the
direction of vector A is given by: Â = A/|A|.

7: Write the unit vectors along X, Y, and Z axes.

Ans: The unit vectors along X, Y, and Z axes of a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system are
represented by:

• î (i-cap) along X-axis

• ĵ (j-cap) along Y-axis

• k̂ (k-cap) along Z-axis The magnitude of each unit vector is 1, i.e., |î| = |ĵ| = |k̂ | = 1.

8: Find the unit vector in the direction of A = 3î + 4ĵ.

Ans: F: Â = A/|A| S: A = 3î + 4ĵ, |A| = √(3² + 4²) = √(9 + 16) = √25 = 5 C: Â = (3î + 4ĵ)/5 = (3/5)î + (4/5)ĵ A: Â
= 0.6î + 0.8ĵ

9: Define position vector.

Ans: A position vector is a vector used to specify the position of an object or a point with respect to the
origin. It is represented by r. In two dimensions, r = xî + yĵ, and its magnitude |r| = √(x² + y²). In three
dimensions, r = xî + yĵ + zk̂ , with magnitude √(x² + y² + z²).

10: Define equal vectors.

Ans: Equal vectors are two vectors that have the same magnitude and the same direction.
Mathematically, if A = B, then |A| = |B|. Equal vectors are also known as parallel vectors, and the angle
between parallel vectors is 0°.

11: Define negative vector.

Ans: A negative vector is a vector that has the same magnitude as the given vector but opposite in
direction. The negative of vector A is represented by -A. Negative vectors are also known as anti-parallel
vectors, and the angle between them is 180°.

12: What happens when a vector is multiplied by a positive scalar?

Ans: When a vector A is multiplied by a positive integer 'm', the resultant vector mA is another vector
whose magnitude is 'm' times that of vector A, and its direction is the same as that of vector A. For
example, multiplying by 2 gives a vector twice as long in the same direction.
13: What happens when a vector is multiplied by a negative scalar?

Ans: When a vector A is multiplied by a negative integer '-m', the resultant vector -mA has magnitude
'm' times that of A, but its direction is opposite to that of A. For example, multiplying by -2 gives a vector
twice as long in the opposite direction.

14: State the parallelogram law of vector addition.

Ans: According to the parallelogram law of vector addition, if two vectors A and B are represented by
the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant R is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the common point. Mathematically: R = A + B.

15: State the triangle law of vector addition.

Ans: According to the triangle law of vector addition, if two vectors A and B are represented by the two
adjacent sides of a triangle taken in order, then the third side taken in the opposite order represents
their resultant R. Mathematically: R = A + B.

16: Explain the head-to-tail rule for vector addition.

Ans: In the head-to-tail rule:

1. Draw all vectors to scale in their respective directions.

2. Join the head of the first vector to the tail of the second vector.

3. Continue joining head to tail for all vectors.

4. The resultant vector is a straight line from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
Mathematically: R = A + B + C + D.

17: Under what condition is the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors maximum?

Ans: The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors is maximum when the vectors are parallel to each
other (angle between them = 0°). In this case, the magnitude of the resultant is equal to the sum of their
magnitudes: |R|_max = |A| + |B|.
18: Under what condition is the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors minimum?

Ans: The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors is minimum when the vectors are anti-parallel to
each other (angle between them = 180°). In this case, the magnitude of the resultant is equal to the
difference of their magnitudes: |R|_min = | |A| - |B| |.

19: Explain the subtraction of vectors.

Ans: Subtraction of vector B from vector A is defined as the addition of vector -B (negative of vector B)
to vector A. Mathematically: A - B = A + (-B). Graphically, first take the negative of vector B, then add it
to A using the head-to-tail rule.

20: If A = î + 2ĵ - 3k̂ and B = 2î - ĵ - 4k̂ , find A + B.

Ans: F: Add corresponding components S: A + B = (î + 2ĵ - 3k̂ ) + (2î - ĵ - 4k̂ ) C: = (1+2)î + (2-1)ĵ + (-3-4)k̂ =
3î + ĵ - 7k̂ A: A + B = 3î + ĵ - 7k̂

21: If A = î + 2ĵ - 3k̂ and B = 2î - ĵ - 4k̂ , find A - B.

Ans: F: A - B = A + (-B) S: A - B = (î + 2ĵ - 3k̂ ) - (2î - ĵ - 4k̂ ) = î + 2ĵ - 3k̂ - 2î + ĵ + 4k̂ C: = (1-2)î + (2+1)ĵ + (-

3+4)k̂ = -î + 3ĵ + k̂ A: A - B = -î + 3ĵ + k̂

22: Define resolution of a vector.

Ans: Resolution of a vector is the process of splitting or decomposing a single vector into two or more
vectors in different directions such that their resultant is again equal to the given vector. When a vector
is resolved into two perpendicular components, they are called rectangular components.

23: Derive expressions for the rectangular components of a vector.

Ans: F: Consider vector A making angle θ with x-axis S: From right triangle, cosθ = Aₓ/A, sinθ = A_y/A C:
Aₓ = A cosθ (horizontal component) A_y = A sinθ (vertical component) The vector can be written as A =
Aₓî + A_yĵ A: Rectangular components are A cosθ and A sinθ.

24: Derive the expression for the magnitude of a vector from its rectangular components.

Ans: F: From right triangle, (hypotenuse)² = (base)² + (perpendicular)² S: For vector A with components
Aₓ and A_y C: A² = Aₓ² + A_y² A = √(Aₓ² + A_y²) A: |A| = √(Aₓ² + A_y²)

25: Derive the expression for the direction of a vector from its rectangular components.

Ans: F: tanθ = A_y/Aₓ S: θ is the angle the vector makes with the positive x-axis C: θ = tan⁻¹(A_y/Aₓ) A: θ
= tan⁻¹(A_y/Aₓ)

26: A vector has components Aₓ = 5 units and A_y = 5 units. Find its magnitude and direction.

Ans: F: |A| = √(Aₓ² + A_y²), θ = tan⁻¹(A_y/Aₓ) S: Aₓ = 5, A_y = 5 C: |A| = √(25 + 25) = √50 = 7.07 units θ =
tan⁻¹(5/5) = tan⁻¹(1) = 45° A: Magnitude = 7.07 units, Direction = 45°

27: A ladder of length 10 m makes an angle of 60° with the floor. Find its horizontal and vertical
distances.

Ans: F: Aₓ = A cosθ, A_y = A sinθ S: A = 10 m, θ = 60° C: Aₓ = 10 × cos60° = 10 × 0.5 = 5 m A_y = 10 ×

sin60° = 10 × 0.866 = 8.66 m A: Horizontal distance = 5 m, Vertical height = 8.66 m

28: Explain the addition of vectors by rectangular components method.

Ans: In this method, vectors are resolved into their rectangular components. The x-components are
added to get the resultant x-component (Rₓ = ΣAₓ), and the y-components are added to get the resultant
y-component (R_y = ΣA_y). The magnitude of the resultant is R = √(Rₓ² + R_y²), and its direction is θ =
tan⁻¹(R_y/Rₓ).
29: Three forces 19 N at 0°, 15 N at 60°, and 16 N at 135° act on a body. Find the resultant force.

Ans: F: Rₓ = ΣFₓ, R_y = ΣF_y, R = √(Rₓ² + R_y²), θ = tan⁻¹(R_y/Rₓ) S: F₁: F₁ₓ = 19 cos0° = 19, F₁_y = 19 sin0° =
0 F₂: F₂ₓ = 15 cos60° = 7.5, F₂_y = 15 sin60° = 13.0 F₃: F₃ₓ = 16 cos135° = -11.31, F₃_y = 16 sin135° = 11.31
C: Rₓ = 19 + 7.5 - 11.31 = 15.19 R_y = 0 + 13.0 + 11.31 = 24.31 R = √(15.19² + 24.31²) = √(230.7 + 591.0) =
√821.7 = 28.66 N θ = tan⁻¹(24.31/15.19) = tan⁻¹(1.60) = 58° A: R = 28.7 N at 58°

30: Define scalar product (dot product) of two vectors.

Ans: Scalar product or dot product of two vectors is a product that yields a scalar quantity. For two
vectors A and B making an angle θ with each other, their scalar product is defined as: A·B = AB cosθ. It is
also equal to the product of the magnitude of one vector and the projection of the other vector onto it.

31: Write any three properties of scalar product.

Ans: Three properties of scalar product are:

1. Commutative: A·B = B·A

2. Perpendicular vectors: If A ⟂ B, then A·B = 0

3. Parallel vectors: If A ∥ B, then A·B = AB (maximum)

4. Dot product with itself: A·A = A²

5. Distributive: A·(B + C) = A·B + A·C

32: Prove that î·ĵ = ĵ·k̂ = k̂ ·î = 0.

Ans: F: A·B = AB cosθ S: î, ĵ, k̂ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors (θ = 90°) C: î·ĵ = (1)(1) cos90° = 1 ×
0 = 0 ĵ·k̂ = (1)(1) cos90° = 0 k̂ ·î = (1)(1) cos90° = 0 A: î·ĵ = ĵ·k̂ = k̂ ·î = 0

33: Prove that î·î = ĵ·ĵ = k̂ ·k̂ = 1.

Ans: F: A·A = A² cos0° = A² S: î, ĵ, k̂ are unit vectors with magnitude 1 and are parallel to themselves (θ =
0°) C: î·î = (1)(1) cos0° = 1 × 1 = 1 ĵ·ĵ = (1)(1) cos0° = 1 k̂ ·k̂ = (1)(1) cos0° = 1 A: î·î = ĵ·ĵ = k̂ ·k̂ = 1
34: Find the angle between A = 3î + 2ĵ + k̂ and B = 5î - 2ĵ - 3k̂ .

Ans: F: cosθ = (A·B)/(AB) S: A·B = (3)(5) + (2)(-2) + (1)(-3) = 15 - 4 - 3 = 8 A = √(3² + 2² + 1²) = √(9 + 4 + 1) =
√14 = 3.74 B = √(5² + (-2)² + (-3)²) = √(25 + 4 + 9) = √38 = 6.16 C: cosθ = 8/(3.74 × 6.16) = 8/23.04 = 0.347
θ = cos⁻¹(0.347) = 69.5° A: θ = 69.5°

35: Prove that vectors A = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ and B = 2î - ĵ are perpendicular.

Ans: F: Two vectors are perpendicular if A·B = 0 S: A·B = (1)(2) + (2)(-1) + (3)(0) = 2 - 2 + 0 = 0 C: Since dot
product is zero, the vectors are perpendicular A: Vectors A and B are perpendicular.

36: Define vector product (cross product) of two vectors.

Ans: Vector product or cross product of two vectors is a product that yields a vector quantity. For two
vectors A and B making an angle θ with each other, their vector product is defined as: A × B = AB sinθ n̂ ,
where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B, whose direction is given by the
right-hand rule.

37: State the right-hand rule for determining the direction of cross product.

Ans: According to the right-hand rule, curl the fingers of the right hand in such a way that the first vector
A rotates towards the second vector B through the smaller angle between them. The stretched
perpendicular thumb then indicates the direction of C = A × B.

38: Prove that A × B = -B × A.

Ans: F: |A × B| = AB sinθ, |B × A| = BA sinθ = AB sinθ S: Magnitudes are equal, but directions are
opposite C: By right-hand rule, A × B gives direction upward, while B × A gives direction downward
Therefore, A × B = -B × A A: Vector product is not commutative.
39: Prove that î × ĵ = k̂ , ĵ × k̂ = î, and k̂ × î = ĵ.

Ans: F: |A × B| = AB sinθ, direction by right-hand rule S: |î| = |ĵ| = |k̂ | = 1, angle between them = 90°,
sin90° = 1 C: î × ĵ = (1)(1) sin90° n̂ = n̂ which is along positive Z-axis = k̂ ĵ × k̂ = (1)(1) sin90° n̂ = n̂ along
positive X-axis = î k̂ × î = (1)(1) sin90° n̂ = n̂ along positive Y-axis = ĵ A: î × ĵ = k̂ , ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ

40: Prove that î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0.

Ans: F: A × A = A² sin0° n̂ S: For unit vectors, A = 1, angle between same vectors = 0°, sin0° = 0 C: î × î =
(1)(1) × 0 × n̂ = 0 Similarly, ĵ × ĵ = 0, k̂ × k̂ = 0 A: Self cross product of unit vectors is zero.

41: What does the magnitude of the vector product of two vectors represent geometrically?

Ans: The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors represents the area of the parallelogram
formed by them as adjacent sides. If A and B are adjacent sides, then |A × B| = AB sinθ = (base)(height)
= area of parallelogram.

42: Determine the area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides A = 2î + ĵ + 3k̂ and B = î - ĵ.

Ans: F: Area = |A × B| S: A × B = (2î + ĵ + 3k̂ ) × (î - ĵ) = 2(î×î) + 2(î×-ĵ) + (ĵ×î) + (ĵ×-ĵ) + 3(k̂ ×î) + 3(k̂ ×-ĵ) = 2(0) -
2k̂ + (-k̂ ) + 0 + 3ĵ -3(-î) = -2k̂ - k̂ + 3ĵ + 3î = 3î + 3ĵ - 3k̂ C: |A × B| = √(3² + 3² + (-3)²) = √(9 + 9 + 9) = √27 =
3√3 = 5.2 units² A: Area = 5.2 square units

43: Define torque. Write its vector form.

Ans: Torque or moment of a force is the turning effect of a force about an axis of rotation. It is equal to
the product of the applied force and the moment arm (perpendicular distance from axis to line of action
of force). In vector form: τ = r × F, where r is the position vector from axis to point of application of
force.

44: Derive the expression for torque as a cross product.

Ans: F: τ = (moment arm) × force S: Moment arm d = r sinθ, where θ is angle between r and F C: τ = (r
sinθ)F = rF sinθ In vector form: τ = r × F = rF sinθ n̂ A: τ = r × F

45: When is torque taken as positive and when as negative?

Ans: Torque is taken as positive when the body is rotated anti-clockwise. Torque is taken as negative
when the body is rotated clockwise. This sign convention helps in applying the second condition of
equilibrium where the sum of all torques must be zero.

46: Calculate the torque produced by a force of 10 N applied at 60° on a wrench of length 5 m.

Ans: F: τ = rF sinθ S: r = 5 m, F = 10 N, θ = 60° C: τ = 5 × 10 × sin60° = 50 × 0.866 = 43.3 Nm Direction:

clockwise or anticlockwise depends on application A: τ = 43.3 Nm

47: State the first condition of equilibrium.

Ans: The first condition of equilibrium (translational equilibrium) states that a body is said to be in
translational equilibrium when the algebraic sum of all concurrent forces acting on it is zero.
Mathematically: ΣF = 0, or ΣFₓ = 0, ΣF_y = 0, ΣF_z = 0.

48: State the second condition of equilibrium.

Ans: The second condition of equilibrium (rotational equilibrium) states that a body is said to be in
rotational equilibrium when the algebraic sum of all torques acting on it is zero. Mathematically: Στ = 0,
taking clockwise torques as negative and anticlockwise torques as positive.

49: When is a body said to be in complete equilibrium?

Ans: A body is said to be in complete or perfect equilibrium when it satisfies both conditions of
equilibrium simultaneously:

1. First condition: ΣF = 0 (linear acceleration is zero)

2. Second condition: Στ = 0 (angular acceleration is zero) In complete equilibrium, the body is either
at rest or moving with uniform velocity (no acceleration).

50: Can a body be in equilibrium when three forces act on it? Explain.

Ans: Yes, a body can be in equilibrium when three forces act on it if the forces are concurrent (their lines
of action meet at a point) and the vector sum of the three forces is zero. This means the three forces can
be represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in order. For example, a book lying on a table has
weight downward, normal reaction upward, and no third force, so it's in equilibrium with two forces.

Chapter 3: Forces and Motion Ans

1: Distinguish between distance and displacement.

Ans:

Feature Distance Displacement

Definition Length of actual path between two Shortest distance between two points in a given
points direction

Nature Scalar quantity Vector quantity

Value Can never be zero or negative during Can be zero, positive, or negative
motion

Relation Greater than or equal to displacement Less than or equal to distance

2: Compare distance and displacement for a body moving along a semicircular path of radius 10 cm from
A to B.

Ans: F: Distance = πr (half circumference), Displacement = 2r (diameter) S: r = 10 cm C: Distance = 3.14 ×

10 = 31.4 cm Displacement = 2 × 10 = 20 cm A: Distance = 31.4 cm, Displacement = 20 cm
3: Define speed and velocity.

Ans:

• Speed: The time rate of change of position of an object in any direction. It is measured by the
distance covered per unit time. Speed = distance/time. It is a scalar quantity.

• Velocity: The rate of change of displacement of a body. Velocity = displacement/time. It is a vector

quantity, and its direction is along the direction of displacement.

4: Distinguish between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.

Ans:

Feature Average Velocity Instantaneous Velocity

Definition Ratio of total displacement to total time interval Velocity at any particular instant of time

Formula v_avg = Δd/Δt v_ins = lim(Δt→0) Δd/Δt

Graph Slope of chord on d-t graph Slope of tangent on d-t graph

5: What does the slope of a displacement-time graph represent?

Ans: The slope of a displacement-time graph represents the velocity of the body.

• A straight line slope represents uniform velocity.

• The slope of the chord represents average velocity.

• The slope of the tangent at a point represents instantaneous velocity.

6: Define acceleration.

Ans: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of a body with respect to time. If v_i is initial velocity
at time t_i and v_f is final velocity at time t_f, then acceleration a = (v_f - v_i)/(t_f - t_i) = Δv/Δt. It is a
vector quantity with SI unit m/s².
7: Distinguish between positive acceleration and negative acceleration (retardation).

Ans:

Feature Positive Acceleration Negative Acceleration (Retardation)

Definition Rate of increase of velocity Rate of decrease of velocity

Direction Same as direction of velocity Opposite to direction of velocity

Graph Positive slope on v-t graph Negative slope on v-t graph

8: Define uniform acceleration and variable acceleration.

Ans:

• Uniform acceleration: A body is said to be moving with uniform acceleration if its velocity changes
by equal amounts in equal intervals of time, however small these intervals may be.

• Variable acceleration: A body is said to have variable acceleration if its velocity changes with time
in terms of magnitude or direction or both (non-uniform acceleration).

9: What does the slope of a velocity-time graph represent?

Ans: The slope of a velocity-time graph represents the acceleration of the body.

• Positive slope → positive acceleration

• Zero slope (horizontal line) → zero acceleration (uniform velocity)

• Negative slope → negative acceleration (retardation)

• Slope of tangent at a point → instantaneous acceleration

10: Derive the first equation of motion v_f = v_i + at.

Ans: F: Acceleration a = (v_f - v_i)/t S: Rearranging C: a × t = v_f - v_i v_f = v_i + at A: v_f = v_i + at
11: Derive the second equation of motion S = v_i t + ½at².

Ans: F: S = v_avg × t, where v_avg = (v_i + v_f)/2 S: From first equation, v_f = v_i + at C: v_avg = (v_i + v_i
+ at)/2 = (2v_i + at)/2 = v_i + ½at S = (v_i + ½at) × t = v_i t + ½at² A: S = v_i t + ½at²

12: Derive the third equation of motion 2aS = v_f² - v_i².

Ans: F: From first equation, t = (v_f - v_i)/a S: Substitute in S = v_avg × t = [(v_i + v_f)/2] × [(v_f - v_i)/a] C:
S = (v_f² - v_i²)/(2a) 2aS = v_f² - v_i² A: 2aS = v_f² - v_i²

13: A vehicle starts from rest and accelerates at 6 m/s² for 5 seconds. Find its final velocity and distance
covered.

Ans: F: v_f = v_i + at, S = v_i t + ½at² S: v_i = 0, a = 6 m/s², t = 5 s C: v_f = 0 + 6 × 5 = 30 m/s S = 0 × 5 + ½ ×
6 × 25 = 0 + 3 × 25 = 75 m A: v_f = 30 m/s, S = 75 m

14: A truck reduces speed from 30 m/s to 8 m/s over 210 m. Find its deceleration and further distance to
stop.

Ans: F: 2aS = v_f² - v_i² ⇒ a = (v_f² - v_i²)/(2S) S: v_i = 30 m/s, v_f = 8 m/s, S = 210 m C: a = (8² - 30²)/(2 ×
210) = (64 - 900)/420 = (-836)/420 = -1.99 m/s² For stopping, v_f = 0, v_i = 8 m/s, a = -1.99 m/s² S = (v_f²
- v_i²)/(2a) = (0 - 64)/(2 × -1.99) = (-64)/(-3.98) = 16.1 m A: Deceleration = 2 m/s², Further distance =
16.1 m

15: Define free fall motion. What is the value of g?

Ans: Free fall motion is the motion of a body falling freely under gravity in the absence of resistive forces
(air resistance). The acceleration produced is called gravitational acceleration, represented by 'g'. Its
value at sea level is 9.8 m/s². It is taken as positive for downward motion and negative for upward
motion.
16: A body is dropped from a tower. Find the distance covered after 1 second and 2 seconds.

Ans: F: S = ½gt² (since v_i = 0) S: g = 9.8 m/s², t₁ = 1 s, t₂ = 2 s C: For t = 1 s: S = ½ × 9.8 × 1² = 4.9 m For t =
2 s: S = ½ × 9.8 × 4 = 19.6 m A: After 1 s = 4.9 m, After 2 s = 19.6 m

17: State Newton's first law of motion.

Ans: Newton's first law of motion (law of inertia) states that: "In the absence of an external force, if a
body is at rest it will remain at rest, and if a body is moving with uniform velocity, it will continue its
uniform motion." This property of bodies to resist any change in their state of rest or motion is called
inertia.

18: Define inertia. What is the measure of inertia?

Ans: Inertia is the inherent property of an object due to which it tends to maintain its state of rest or of
uniform motion. It is the resistance to any change in velocity. The mass of a body is the quantitative
measure of its inertia. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia.

19: State Newton's second law of motion.

Ans: Newton's second law of motion (law of acceleration) states that: "When a force is applied on a
body, an acceleration is produced in the body in the direction of the force. The acceleration is directly
proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body." Mathematically: F
= ma.

20: Define one newton force.

Ans: One newton is defined as the amount of force that produces an acceleration of 1 m/s² in a body of
mass 1 kg. 1 N = 1 kg × 1 m/s². It is the SI unit of force.

21: A force of 15 N acts on a body of mass 3 kg for 5 seconds, reducing its velocity from 9 m/s to 4 m/s.
Find the force.
Ans: F: F = ma = m(v_f - v_i)/t S: m = 3 kg, v_i = 9 m/s, v_f = 4 m/s, t = 5 s C: F = 3 × (4 - 9)/5 = 3 × (-5)/5 =
3 × (-1) = -3 N A: F = -3 N (negative sign indicates force opposite to motion)

22: State Newton's third law of motion.

Ans: Newton's third law of motion (law of action and reaction) states that: "For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction." Action and reaction are forces that have the same magnitude but act in
opposite directions on different bodies. They always exist in pairs and never act on the same body.

23: Give two examples of Newton's third law from daily life.

Ans: Two examples of Newton's third law are:

1. Rocket propulsion: When hot gases escape from the tail of a rocket with high speed (action), the
reaction of these gases causes the rocket to move upward.

2. Walking: When we walk, our feet push the ground backward (action), and the ground pushes us
forward (reaction).

3. Book on table: The weight of the book acts downward (action), and the table provides an equal
upward normal reaction.

24: Distinguish between mass and weight.

Ans:

Feature Mass Weight

Definition Quantity of matter in a body Force of gravity on a body

Nature Scalar quantity Vector quantity (towards Earth's centre)

Formula m = ρV W = mg

Variability Constant everywhere Varies with g (location)

SI unit kilogram (kg) newton (N)

25: Define gravitational mass and inertial mass.

Ans:

• Gravitational mass: Mass defined in terms of the ratio between the weight of a body and
gravitational acceleration: m = W/g. It is measured at rest on a balance that depends on gravity.

• Inertial mass: Mass defined as the ratio between applied force and the linear acceleration
produced: m = F/a. It is measured dynamically (while moving) and does not depend on gravity.

26: Define linear momentum. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Linear momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of a moving body. It is a vector quantity
whose direction is along the direction of velocity. Mathematically: p = mv. Its SI unit is kg m/s or Ns, and
its dimensional formula is [MLT⁻¹].

27: Show that Newton's second law can be written as F = Δp/Δt.

Ans: F: F = ma = m(v_f - v_i)/Δt S: m(v_f - v_i) = p_f - p_i = Δp C: F = (p_f - p_i)/Δt = Δp/Δt A: F = Δp/Δt,
i.e., force equals rate of change of momentum.

28: Define impulse. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Impulse is the product of an impulsive force and the short interval of time during which it acts. It is
a vector quantity. Mathematically: Impulse = F × Δt. Its SI unit is Ns, and its dimensional formula is
[MLT⁻¹]. Impulse is equal to the change in momentum: Impulse = Δp = mv_f - mv_i.

29: Prove that impulse equals change in momentum.

Ans: F: From Newton's second law, F = Δp/Δt S: Multiply both sides by Δt C: F × Δt = Δp Impulse = change
in momentum A: Impulse = Δp = mv_f - mv_i
30: Why does a cricket player draw his hands back while catching a fast ball?

Ans: A cricket player draws his hands back while catching a fast ball to increase the time of catch.
According to impulse-momentum theorem, F = Δp/Δt. For the same change in momentum (Δp),
increasing the time (Δt) decreases the average force (F) experienced. This reduces the impact force on
the hands, preventing injury.

31: Why are automobiles provided with spring systems?

Ans: Automobiles are provided with spring systems to increase the time of jerk when the vehicle bumps
over an uneven road. According to impulse-momentum theorem, increasing the time of impact reduces
the force. This minimizes the damage to the automobile and provides a smoother ride.

32: State the law of conservation of linear momentum.

Ans: The law of conservation of linear momentum states that in the absence of an external force, the
total momentum of an isolated system remains constant. Mathematically, for two bodies: m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ =
m₁v₁' + m₂v₂', where v and v' are velocities before and after collision.

33: Derive the law of conservation of momentum from Newton's laws.

Ans: F: During collision, F₂₁ = -F₁₂ (Newton's third law) S: F = Δp/Δt, so F₂₁ = Δp₁/Δt, F₁₂ = Δp₂/Δt C: Δp₁/Δt
= -Δp₂/Δt ⇒ Δp₁ = -Δp₂ m₁v₁' - m₁v₁ = -(m₂v₂' - m₂v₂) m₁v₁' - m₁v₁ = -m₂v₂' + m₂v₂ Rearranging: m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ =
m₁v₁' + m₂v₂' A: Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision

34: Define collision. What are the two types of collision?

Ans: Collision is the impact of two bodies due to their interaction with each other. The two types of
collision are:

1. Elastic collision: Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

2. Inelastic collision: Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not conserved (some energy is
converted to heat, sound, etc.).
35: Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.

Ans:

Feature Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision

Kinetic Energy Conserved Not conserved

Momentum Conserved Conserved

Energy No loss of KE KE converted to heat, sound

conversion

Example Collisions of gas molecules Cars colliding, bullet hitting target

36: Write the characteristics of elastic collision.

Ans: Characteristics of elastic collision:

1. Linear momentum is conserved.

2. Kinetic energy is conserved.

3. Total energy of the system is conserved.

4. The relative velocity of approach before collision equals the relative velocity of separation after
collision (v₁ - v₂ = v₂' - v₁').

37: Derive the relation for velocities after elastic collision in one dimension.

Ans: F: From conservation of momentum: m₁v₁ + m₂v₂ = m₁v₁' + m₂v₂' From conservation of KE: ½m₁v₁² +
½m₂v₂² = ½m₁v₁'² + ½m₂v₂'² S: From momentum: m₁(v₁ - v₁') = m₂(v₂' - v₂) ...(1) From KE: m₁(v₁² - v₁'²) =
m₂(v₂'² - v₂²) m₁(v₁ - v₁')(v₁ + v₁') = m₂(v₂' - v₂)(v₂' + v₂) ...(2) C: Divide (2) by (1): v₁ + v₁' = v₂ + v₂' Therefore:
v₁ - v₂ = v₂' - v₁' (relative velocity of approach = relative velocity of separation) Solving simultaneously: v₁'
= [(m₁ - m₂)/(m₁ + m₂)]v₁ + [2m₂/(m₁ + m₂)]v₂ v₂' = [2m₁/(m₁ + m₂)]v₁ + [(m₂ - m₁)/(m₁ + m₂)]v₂ A: Final
velocities after elastic collision

38: What happens when two bodies of equal mass undergo elastic collision?
Ans: When two bodies of equal mass (m₁ = m₂) undergo elastic collision, their velocities are
interchanged: v₁' = v₂ and v₂' = v₁ If the second body is initially at rest (v₂ = 0), then after collision: v₁' = 0
and v₂' = v₁ The moving body comes to rest, and the stationary body moves with the velocity of the first
body.

39: What happens when a very light body collides elastically with a heavy body at rest?

Ans: When a very light body (m₁ << m₂) collides elastically with a heavy body at rest (v₂ = 0): v₁' ≈ -v₁ (the
light body rebounds with its own velocity) v₂' ≈ 0 (the heavy body remains at rest) For example, a ball
bouncing off a massive wall.

40: What happens when a very heavy body collides elastically with a light body at rest?

Ans: When a very heavy body (m₁ >> m₂) collides elastically with a light body at rest (v₂ = 0): v₁' ≈ v₁ (the
heavy body continues with the same velocity) v₂' ≈ 2v₁ (the light body moves with double the velocity of
the heavy body) For example, a massive truck hitting a small car.

41: A 10 kg mass moving at 2 m/s collides elastically with a 2 kg mass moving at 4 m/s in the opposite
direction. Find their final velocities.

Ans: F: v₁' = [(m₁ - m₂)/(m₁ + m₂)]v₁ + [2m₂/(m₁ + m₂)]v₂ v₂' = [2m₁/(m₁ + m₂)]v₁ + [(m₂ - m₁)/(m₁ + m₂)]v₂ S:
m₁ = 10 kg, m₂ = 2 kg, v₁ = 2 m/s, v₂ = -4 m/s C: v₁' = [(10-2)/(12)]×2 + [4/12]×(-4) = (8/12)×2 + (1/3)×(-4) =
(16/12) - (4/3) = 1.33 - 1.33 = 0 m/s v₂' = [20/12]×2 + [(2-10)/12]×(-4) = (20/12)×2 + (-8/12)×(-4) = (40/12)
+ (32/12) = 72/12 = 6 m/s A: v₁' = 0 m/s, v₂' = 6 m/s

42: Distinguish between collision and explosion.

Ans:

Feature Collision Explosion

Definition Impact of two bodies Single body breaks into fragments

Initial state Bodies approach each other Single body at rest

Final state Bodies may stick or separate Fragments move apart

Momentum Conserved Conserved

Energy May or may not be Potential energy converted to KE

conserved

43: A bullet of mass 9 g is fired from a gun of mass 6 kg with muzzle velocity 350 m/s. Find the recoil
velocity of the gun.

Ans: F: From conservation of momentum: m_b v_b + m_g v_g = 0 (initially at rest) S: m_b = 9 g = 0.009
kg, v_b = 350 m/s, m_g = 6 kg C: 0.009 × 350 + 6 × v_g = 0 3.15 + 6v_g = 0 v_g = -3.15/6 = -0.525 m/s A:
Recoil velocity = 0.525 m/s (opposite direction to bullet)

44: Define projectile and projectile motion.

Ans: A projectile is any object that is thrown into air or space with some initial velocity at an angle θ
with the horizontal direction. Projectile motion is the two-dimensional motion of a projectile along a
curved path under the effect of gravitational force. The path followed is called a trajectory, which is a
parabola.

45: Give five examples of projectile motion.

Ans: Five examples of projectile motion are:

1. A rocket or missile fired at a target

2. A hammer or javelin thrown by an athlete

3. A long jump attempted by an athlete

4. A football kicked by a player

5. A cricket ball hit by a batsman for six

6. A baseball hit by a batter for a home run

46: What are the assumptions made in analyzing projectile motion?

Ans: The three assumptions made in analyzing projectile motion are:

1. The acceleration due to gravity, g, is constant over the range of motion and its direction is
downward.

2. The effect of air resistance is neglected (no horizontal force).

3. The motion of Earth does not affect the motion of the projectile.

47: Derive the expression for the time of flight of a projectile.

Ans: F: At maximum height, v_y = 0 S: Using v_y = v₀ sinθ - gt, at maximum height t = t_sec C: 0 = v₀ sinθ
- gt_sec ⇒ t_sec = v₀ sinθ/g Total time T = t_sec + t_dec = 2v₀ sinθ/g A: T = 2v₀ sinθ/g

48: Derive the expression for the maximum height of a projectile.

Ans: F: Using 2aS = v_f² - v_i² for vertical motion S: a = -g, S = H, v_f = 0, v_i = v₀ sinθ C: 2(-g)H = 0 - (v₀
sinθ)² -2gH = -v₀² sin²θ H = v₀² sin²θ/(2g) A: H = v₀² sin²θ/(2g)

49: Derive the expression for the horizontal range of a projectile.

Ans: F: Range R = horizontal velocity × time of flight S: Horizontal velocity = v₀ cosθ, Time of flight T = 2v₀
sinθ/g C: R = (v₀ cosθ) × (2v₀ sinθ/g) = (v₀²/g) × 2 sinθ cosθ Since 2 sinθ cosθ = sin2θ A: R = v₀² sin2θ/g

50: At what angle should a projectile be launched to achieve maximum range? What is the maximum
range?

Ans: F: R = v₀² sin2θ/g is maximum when sin2θ is maximum S: Maximum value of sin2θ = 1, which occurs
when 2θ = 90° C: θ = 45° R_max = v₀²/g × 1 = v₀²/g A: Angle = 45°, Maximum range R_max = v₀²/g

Chapter 4: Work and Energy Ans

1: Define work in physics. Write its formula.

Ans: In physics, work is said to be done only when a force acting on an object produces a displacement
in it in the direction of force. For a constant force F acting at an angle θ to the displacement d, work is
defined as the scalar product of force and displacement: W = F·d = Fd cosθ.

2: Define one joule of work.

Ans: One joule is defined as the amount of work done when a force of one newton displaces a body
through one metre in the direction of the force. 1 J = 1 N × 1 m.

3: When is work done maximum? Give an example.

Ans: Work done is maximum when the applied force is parallel to the displacement (θ = 0°). Then W = Fd
cos0° = Fd. Example: When a man pushes a cart on a horizontal smooth surface, the force and
displacement are in the same direction, so work done is maximum.

4: When is work done zero? Give two examples.

Ans: Work done is zero when:

1. The force and displacement are perpendicular to each other (θ = 90°). Then W = Fd cos90° = 0.
Example: A man holding a pail while walking on a horizontal surface (force upward, displacement
horizontal).

2. When displacement is zero (object doesn't move). Example: A man pushing a rigid wall that doesn't
move.

5: When is work done negative? Give two examples.

Ans: Work done is negative when the angle between force and displacement is greater than 90° (θ >
90°). When θ = 180°, W = Fd cos180° = -Fd. Examples:

1. When a body slides on a rough surface, the frictional force acts opposite to displacement (negative
work).
2. When a body is thrown upward, gravitational force acts downward while displacement is upward
(negative work).

6: A man pulls a bag with a force of 80 N at 30° for 10 m. Calculate the work done.

Ans: F: W = Fd cosθ S: F = 80 N, d = 10 m, θ = 30° C: W = 80 × 10 × cos30° = 800 × 0.866 = 692.8 J A: W =

693 J

7: How is work calculated for a variable force?

Ans: For a variable force, the total work done is calculated by dividing the total displacement into small
segments Δd where the force can be considered constant. The work for each segment is Fᵢ Δdᵢ cosθᵢ, and
total work is the sum: W_total = Σ Fᵢ Δdᵢ cosθᵢ. Graphically, it equals the area under the force-
displacement curve.

8: Define gravitational field and gravitational field strength.

Ans:

• Gravitational field: The space around the Earth in which the Earth can attract a body toward its
centre.

• Gravitational field strength: The gravitational force per unit mass on a body. Its SI unit is N/kg.

9: Show that work done in a gravitational field is independent of path.

Ans: Consider moving a mass m from A to C via two paths: direct A→C and A→B→C.

• Along A→C: W = mg × d₁ (where d₁ is vertical height)

• Along A→B: W = mg × d₁ (vertical displacement), B→C: W = 0 (horizontal) Total = mgd₁ + 0 = mgd₁

Since both paths give the same work, work done in gravitational field is independent of path.

10: Show that work done in a gravitational field along a closed path is zero.
Ans: Consider moving a mass from A to C and back to A:

• A→C: Work = +mgd₁

• C→A: Work = -mgd₁ Total work = +mgd₁ + (-mgd₁) = 0 Therefore, work done in a gravitational field
along a closed path is zero, proving that gravity is a conservative force.

11: Define energy. What is its SI unit?

Ans: Energy is the ability or capacity of a body to do work. When work is done on a body, an equal
amount of energy is stored in it. Energy is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is the same as work, i.e., joule (J).
Its dimensional formula is [ML²T⁻²].

12: Define kinetic energy. Write its formula.

Ans: Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. For a body of mass m moving
with velocity v, kinetic energy is given by: K.E = ½mv². It depends on the speed of the body; faster a
body moves, greater is its kinetic energy.

13: A neutron of mass 1.67×10⁻²⁷ kg travels 12 m in 3.6×10⁻⁴ s. Find its kinetic energy.

Ans: F: v = distance/time, K.E = ½mv² S: m = 1.67×10⁻²⁷ kg, d = 12 m, t = 3.6×10⁻⁴ s C: v = 12/(3.6×10⁻⁴) =

3.33×10⁴ m/s K.E = ½ × 1.67×10⁻²⁷ × (3.33×10⁴)² = 0.835×10⁻²⁷ × 1.109×10⁹ = 9.26×10⁻¹⁹ J A: K.E =
9.26×10⁻¹⁹ J

14: Define potential energy. Give three examples.

Ans: Potential energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or configuration.
Examples:

1. A body lifted to a height against gravity gains gravitational potential energy.

2. Water stored in a dam possesses gravitational potential energy.

3. A compressed spring possesses elastic potential energy.

15: Derive the expression for gravitational potential energy.

Ans: F: Work done = force × displacement S: To raise a mass m to height h, force needed = mg (against
gravity), displacement = h C: Work = mg × h This work is stored as gravitational potential energy A: P.E =
mgh

16: State the work-energy theorem.

Ans: The work-energy theorem states that the work done by an applied force on a body is equal to the
change in its kinetic energy (or potential energy). Mathematically: W = ΔK.E = ½mv_f² - ½mv_i². If work
is positive, kinetic energy increases; if work is negative, kinetic energy decreases.

17: Derive the work-energy theorem.

Ans: F: W = Fd, and F = ma S: From third equation of motion: 2ad = v_f² - v_i² ⇒ d = (v_f² - v_i²)/(2a) C: W
= m × a × (v_f² - v_i²)/(2a) = ½m(v_f² - v_i²) W = ½mv_f² - ½mv_i² = K.E_f - K.E_i A: W = ΔK.E

18: A force of 1500 N acts on a 200 kg vehicle from rest over 30 m. Find its final speed.

Ans: F: W = Fd cosθ = ΔK.E = ½mv_f² - ½mv_i² S: F = 1500 N, d = 30 m, θ = 0°, m = 200 kg, v_i = 0 C: W =
1500 × 30 × cos0° = 45000 J ½ × 200 × v_f² = 45000 100 v_f² = 45000 ⇒ v_f² = 450 ⇒ v_f = 21.2 m/s A:
v_f = 21.2 m/s

19: Define absolute gravitational potential energy.

Ans: Absolute gravitational potential energy is the work done in moving a body from the surface of the
Earth to a point at infinity (where gravitational field becomes zero), against the gravitational field. It is
given by U = -GMm/R, where M is mass of Earth, m is mass of body, and R is radius of Earth.

20: Derive the expression for absolute gravitational potential energy.

Ans: F: Gravitational force F = GMm/r² S: Work done in small displacement dr: dW = F dr cos180° = -
GMm/r² dr C: Total work from r = R to ∞: W = -GMm ∫_R^∞ r⁻² dr = -GMm [-1/r]_R^∞ = -GMm [0 -
(-1/R)] = -GMm/R This work is stored as potential energy A: U = -GMm/R

21: Define escape velocity.

Ans: Escape velocity is the minimum initial velocity required for a body to be projected from the surface
of the Earth (or any planet) so that it escapes the gravitational field and never returns. It is given by
v_esc = √(2GM/R) = √(2gR).

22: Derive the expression for escape velocity.

Ans: F: For escape, initial K.E should equal the work needed to overcome gravity S: Initial K.E =
½mv_esc², Work = GMm/R (absolute P.E at surface) C: ½mv_esc² = GMm/R v_esc² = 2GM/R Also, g =
GM/R² ⇒ GM = gR² v_esc² = 2gR²/R = 2gR A: v_esc = √(2GM/R) = √(2gR)

23: Calculate the escape velocity from Earth. (g = 9.8 m/s², R = 6.4×10⁶ m)

Ans: F: v_esc = √(2gR) S: g = 9.8 m/s², R = 6.4×10⁶ m C: v_esc = √(2 × 9.8 × 6.4×10⁶) = √(125.44×10⁶) =
√(1.2544×10⁸) = 1.12×10⁴ m/s A: v_esc = 11.2 km/s

24: Define power. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of energy. Mathematically: P = Work/time =
Energy/time. Its SI unit is watt (W). 1 watt = 1 J/s. Power can also be expressed as the dot product of
force and velocity: P = F·v = Fv cosθ.

25: Derive the relation P = F·v.

Ans: F: P = Work/time S: Work W = F·d, where d is displacement in time t C: P = (F·d)/t = F·(d/t) = F·v A: P
= F·v, i.e., power is the dot product of force and velocity.
26: A pump lifts 100 m³ of water to a height of 30 m. Find the work done against gravity. (ρ = 1000
kg/m³)

Ans: F: Work = mgh, mass m = ρ × volume S: ρ = 1000 kg/m³, V = 100 m³, h = 30 m, g = 9.8 m/s² C: m =
1000 × 100 = 10⁵ kg W = 10⁵ × 9.8 × 30 = 10⁵ × 294 = 2.94×10⁷ J A: W = 2.94×10⁷ J ≈ 3×10⁷ J

27: What power is required to raise a 500 kg block to 15 m in 50 s?

Ans: F: Power = Work/time = mgh/t S: m = 500 kg, h = 15 m, t = 50 s, g = 9.8 m/s² C: Work = 500 × 9.8 ×
15 = 500 × 147 = 73500 J Power = 73500/50 = 1470 W In hp: 1470/746 = 1.97 hp A: Power = 1470 W = 2
hp

28: A car of mass 1500 kg accelerates from rest to 30 m/s in 10 s. Find its power (neglect friction).

Ans: F: Power = Work/time = ΔK.E/t S: m = 1500 kg, v_f = 30 m/s, v_i = 0, t = 10 s C: ΔK.E = ½ × 1500 ×
30² = 750 × 900 = 675000 J Power = 675000/10 = 67500 W In hp: 67500/746 = 90.5 hp A: Power = 90.5
hp

29: Derive the expression for work done against friction.

Ans: F: For a block on rough surface, net force F_net = F_applied - f_k S: F_net = ma, and from equations
of motion, a = (v_f² - v_i²)/(2d) C: m(v_f² - v_i²)/(2d) = F_applied - f_k Multiply by d: ½m(v_f² - v_i²) =
F_applied d - f_k d Therefore: F_applied d = ΔK.E + f_k d A: Work done = change in K.E + work against
friction

30: Define efficiency of a device. Write its formula.

Ans: Efficiency of a device is the ratio of useful output energy (or work) to the total input energy (or
work), expressed as a percentage. It indicates how much of the input energy is converted into useful
work. Mathematically: Efficiency = (Useful output energy/Total input energy) × 100%.
31: Why can no practical machine have 100% efficiency?

Ans: No practical machine can have 100% efficiency because some energy is always lost due to friction
between moving parts, air resistance, and other dissipative forces. This lost energy is converted into
heat, sound, or other forms that cannot be used for useful work. Frictional forces can be minimized but
cannot be eliminated completely.

32: Define conservative force. Give two examples.

Ans: A force is said to be conservative if the work done in moving a body between any two points is
independent of the path followed, and the work done around any closed path is zero. Examples:
gravitational force, elastic spring force, electrostatic force.

33: Define non-conservative force. Give two examples.

Ans: A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done in moving a body between two points
depends on the path followed, and the work done around a closed path is not zero. Examples: frictional
force, air resistance force, tension.

34: Distinguish between conservative and non-conservative forces.

Ans:

Feature Conservative Force Non-conservative Force

Path Work independent of path Work depends on path

dependence

Closed path work Zero Not zero

Energy recovery Can be fully recovered Cannot be recovered (dissipated)

Potential energy Can be associated Cannot be associated

Examples Gravity, spring force Friction, air resistance

35: Define conventional (non-renewable) sources of energy. Give examples.

Ans: Conventional or non-renewable sources of energy are those that can be used for a long time but
are exhaustible and cannot be replenished easily. Examples: coal, oil, natural gas (fossil fuels), uranium
(nuclear fuel). These were formed over millions of years from decomposed plants and animals.

36: Define non-conventional (renewable) sources of energy. Give examples.

Ans: Non-conventional or renewable sources of energy are those that are inexhaustible and can be
replenished quickly. They are inexpensive and pollution-free. Examples: solar energy, wind energy,
biomass energy, geothermal energy, tidal energy.

37: What are fossil fuels? Name three main fossil fuels.

Ans: Fossil fuels are the remains of plants and animals that were formed by natural processes over
millions of years when decomposed matter was buried in the Earth's crust. They are hydrocarbons
containing high percentages of carbon. The three main fossil fuels are: coal, oil (petroleum), and natural
gas.

38: What are the environmental problems associated with burning fossil fuels?

Ans: Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen into the atmosphere, causing
pollution. This leads to:

1. Smog - harmful air pollution

2. Acid rain - damage to crops, buildings, and water bodies

3. Greenhouse effect - rising global temperatures due to trapped heat

4. Global warming - climate change consequences

39: What is the greenhouse effect?

Ans: The greenhouse effect refers to the rising temperature of Earth caused by the sun's energy being
trapped in our atmosphere by extra gases (like CO₂, methane) released from burning fossil fuels. These
gases act like a blanket, allowing sunlight in but preventing heat from escaping, thus raising Earth's
temperature.

40: Name the major coal reserves in Pakistan.

Ans: Pakistan has the 7th largest coal reserves in the world. Major coal reserves include:

1. Thar coal reserves in Sindh (175 billion tons)

2. Shahrag

3. Marwaar

4. Duki

5. Much

6. Chamalung (in Balochistan)

41: What is crude oil? What products are obtained from it?

Ans: Crude oil is a liquid fossil fuel found underground, obtained through drilling. It is refined into
various energy products through fractional distillation, including: gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, jet fuel,
heating oil, and also used in production of plastics, tyres, and polyesters.

42: Why is natural gas called an environmentally friendly fuel?

Ans: Natural gas is called an environmentally friendly fuel because it burns completely and leaves no
ashes. It emits less carbon dioxide than coal and oil, and is mainly composed of methane with small
amounts of propane and ethane. It is used for cooking, heating, and in industries.

43: Where was the first natural gas field discovered in Pakistan?

Ans: The first natural gas field in Pakistan was discovered in 1952 at Sui in Balochistan. The Sui gas field
contributes 46% of the total installed gas capacity of the country. Natural gas is the second largest
energy source in Pakistan.
44: How is nuclear energy produced? Name Pakistan's nuclear power plants.

Ans: Nuclear energy is produced through nuclear fission, where uranium (or plutonium) atoms are split,
releasing enormous energy. Fission of 1 kg of uranium produces energy equivalent to one million tons of
coal. Pakistan's nuclear power plants:

• KANUPP (Karachi)

• CHASNUPP-I, II, III, IV (Mianwali district) Total installed capacity: 1430 MW, with 2500 MW under
construction.

45: What is hydro power? Name major hydro power sources in Pakistan.

Ans: Hydro power is energy obtained from running water or water falling from high potential to low
potential. It is a conventional and renewable form of energy. Pakistan's major hydro power sources:

• Tarbela Dam

• Ghazi-Brotha hydro plant

• Mangla Dam

• Neelam-Jehlum hydro plant

• Warsak Dam Total generation: about 6700 MW.

46: How is solar energy converted into electrical energy?

Ans: Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy using:

1. Photovoltaic cells (solar cells) - semiconductor devices that directly convert sunlight into
electricity. They can be connected to rechargeable batteries for storage.

2. Solar thermal power systems - mirrors concentrate solar radiation to heat a fluid (like molten salt)
to high temperatures (>450°C), producing steam to run turbines.

47: What is wind energy? Where is the world's biggest wind farm located?

Ans: Wind energy is energy obtained from wind using wind mills or turbines. Wind blows from high
pressure to low pressure areas due to uneven heating of the atmosphere by the Sun and Earth's
rotation. The world's biggest wind farm is the Gansu wind farm in China, located in the Gobi Desert,
generating up to 7900 MW with 7000 wind turbines.

48: What is biomass energy? How is it produced?

Ans: Biomass energy is energy obtained from organic materials like plants, trees, crops, cattle dung,
sewage, and agricultural/urban wastes. It is produced through:

1. Biological method - converting carbohydrates in plants to ethanol/methanol for liquid fuel.

2. Direct burning - wood and agricultural residue for heating/cooking.

3. Biogas production - bacterial decomposition of waste produces methane for heating and electricity
generation.

49: What is geothermal energy? What are its sources?

Ans: Geothermal energy is the natural heat present inside the Earth, available at depths of about 10 km.
It comes from three sources:

1. Ancient heat stored in Earth's core (temperature ~4000°C)

2. Friction of Earth's plates

3. Decay of naturally occurring radioactive elements Hot steam and water from underground can
operate turbines to generate electricity.

50: What is tidal energy? How is it harnessed?

Ans: Tidal energy is gravitational energy obtained from ocean tides, caused by the Moon's gravitational
force and Earth's rotation. It is harnessed using:

1. Tidal barrage system - a dam traps water in a tidal basin; released water operates turbines.

2. Tidal streams and currents - underwater turbines driven by tidal flow. Electricity is generated both
when tides come in and go out.

Chapter 5: Rotational and Circular Motion Ans

1: Define angular displacement. What are its properties?

Ans: Angular displacement is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc along which a
particle moves in a given time. Properties:

• For very small angles, it is a vector quantity

• Anti-clockwise rotation → positive angular displacement

• Clockwise rotation → negative angular displacement

• Direction given by right-hand rule (along axis of rotation)

2: Define radian. What is the relation between radian and degree?

Ans: Radian is the SI unit of angular displacement. One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a
circle by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the circle. Relation: 1 radian = 180°/π = 57.3°, and
1° = 0.01745 rad. One complete revolution = 2π radians = 360°.

3: Derive the relation S = rθ.

Ans: F: For a circle, arc length is proportional to angle subtended S: S ∝ θ, with constant of
proportionality r C: S = rθ For θ in radians, if θ = 1 rad, then S = r A: S = rθ, where S is arc length, r is
radius, θ is angle in radians.

4: Convert 30°, 45°, 90°, 180°, and 360° into radians.

Ans: F: θ(rad) = θ(°) × π/180 S: π = 180° C: 30° = 30 × π/180 = π/6 rad 45° = 45 × π/180 = π/4 rad 90° = 90
× π/180 = π/2 rad 180° = 180 × π/180 = π rad 360° = 360 × π/180 = 2π rad A: π/6, π/4, π/2, π, 2π radians

5: Define angular velocity. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement. It is denoted by ω (omega). Average
angular velocity: ω_avg = Δθ/Δt. Instantaneous angular velocity: ω_ins = lim(Δt→0) Δθ/Δt. Its SI unit is
rad/s. It is a vector quantity directed along the axis of rotation (right-hand rule).

6: Calculate the angular velocity of Earth about its own axis.

Ans: F: ω = 2π/T S: Earth completes one rotation in 24 hours, T = 24 × 3600 = 86400 s C: ω = 2 × 3.14 /
86400 = 6.28/86400 = 7.27×10⁻⁵ rad/s A: ω = 7.3×10⁻⁵ rad/s

7: Define angular acceleration. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity. It is denoted by α. Average angular
acceleration: α_avg = (ω_f - ω_i)/Δt. Instantaneous angular acceleration: α_ins = lim(Δt→0) Δω/Δt. Its SI
unit is rad/s². Direction is along the axis of rotation (same as ω if speed increases, opposite if decreases).

8: The angular velocity of a body increases from 6 rad/s to 18 rad/s in 16 s. Find angular acceleration and
number of revolutions.

Ans: F: α = (ω_f - ω_i)/t, Number of revolutions = (ω_avg × t)/(2π) S: ω_i = 6 rad/s, ω_f = 18 rad/s, t = 16
s C: α = (18 - 6)/16 = 12/16 = 0.75 rad/s² ω_avg = (6 + 18)/2 = 12 rad/s Angle θ = ω_avg × t = 12 × 16 =
192 rad Revolutions = 192/(2π) = 192/6.28 = 30.6 rev A: α = 0.75 rad/s², n = 30.6 revolutions

9: Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity (v = rω).

Ans: F: Linear velocity v = ΔS/Δt, angular velocity ω = Δθ/Δt S: From S = rθ, ΔS = r Δθ C: v = (r Δθ)/Δt = r
(Δθ/Δt) = rω A: v = rω, where v is linear speed, r is radius, ω is angular velocity.

10: Derive the relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration (a = rα).

Ans: F: Linear acceleration a = Δv/Δt, angular acceleration α = Δω/Δt S: From v = rω, Δv = r Δω C: a = (r

Δω)/Δt = r (Δω/Δt) = rα A: a = rα, where a is tangential acceleration, r is radius, α is angular acceleration.
11: Write the three equations of motion for angular variables.

Ans: The three equations of motion for angular variables (analogous to linear motion) are:

1. ω_f = ω_i + αt

2. θ = ω_i t + ½αt²

3. 2αθ = ω_f² - ω_i² where ω_i is initial angular velocity, ω_f is final angular velocity, α is angular
acceleration, θ is angular displacement, and t is time.

12: A particle moves in a circle of radius 2 m with linear speed 20 m/s. Find its angular velocity.

Ans: F: ω = v/r S: v = 20 m/s, r = 2 m C: ω = 20/2 = 10 rad/s A: ω = 10 rad/s

13: Define centripetal acceleration. Derive its formula a_c = v²/r.

Ans: Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration of a body moving with uniform speed in a circle,
directed towards the centre of the circle. F: From circular motion, Δv = v Δθ, and Δθ = ω Δt S: a_c = Δv/Δt
= v (Δθ/Δt) = vω C: Since ω = v/r, a_c = v × (v/r) = v²/r A: a_c = v²/r = rω²

14: Define centripetal force. Derive its formula F_c = mv²/r.

Ans: Centripetal force is the force that makes a body follow a circular path, always directed towards the
centre of the circle. F: From Newton's second law, F = ma S: Centripetal acceleration a_c = v²/r C: F_c =
m × (v²/r) = mv²/r = mrω² A: F_c = mv²/r = mrω²

15: A body of mass 0.5 kg moves in a circle of radius 30 cm at 1.5 rev/s. Find its tangential speed,
centripetal acceleration, and centripetal force.

Ans: F: ω = 2πf, v = rω, a_c = v²/r, F_c = mv²/r S: m = 0.5 kg, r = 0.3 m, f = 1.5 rev/s C: ω = 2 × 3.14 × 1.5 =
9.42 rad/s v = 0.3 × 9.42 = 2.83 m/s a_c = (2.83)²/0.3 = 8.01/0.3 = 26.7 m/s² F_c = 0.5 × 26.7 = 13.35 N A:
v = 2.83 m/s, a_c = 26.7 m/s², F_c = 13.35 N
16: A car of mass 750 kg moves at 47 km/h on a circular track of radius 24 m. Find the centripetal force.

Ans: F: F_c = mv²/r S: m = 750 kg, v = 47 km/h = 47 × 1000/3600 = 13.06 m/s, r = 24 m C: F_c = 750 ×
(13.06)²/24 = 750 × 170.6/24 = 127950/24 = 5331 N A: F_c = 5331 N (textbook: 5281 N with v = 13 m/s)

17: What is banking of roads? Why is it done?

Ans: Banking of roads is the construction of a curved road with its outer edge slightly raised above the
inner edge by an angle θ. It is done to provide the necessary centripetal force to vehicles moving on the
curved road, reducing their tendency to skid outward. The banking angle provides a horizontal
component of normal reaction that acts as centripetal force.

18: Derive the expression for the banking angle tanθ = v²/rg.

Ans: F: For a banked road, horizontal component N sinθ provides centripetal force S: N sinθ = mv²/r, and
vertical equilibrium: N cosθ = mg C: Dividing: (N sinθ)/(N cosθ) = (mv²/r)/(mg) tanθ = v²/(rg) A: tanθ =
v²/(rg), where θ is banking angle, v is speed, r is radius, g is gravity.

19: Find the safe speed for a train on a curved track of radius 150 m banked at 5°.

Ans: F: v = √(rg tanθ) S: r = 150 m, θ = 5°, g = 9.8 m/s², tan5° = 0.0875 C: v = √(150 × 9.8 × 0.0875) = √(150
× 0.8575) = √128.6 = 11.34 m/s A: v = 11.3 m/s (≈ 40.7 km/h)

20: Define moment of inertia. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Moment of inertia (rotational inertia) is the property of a body by virtue of which it resists any
change in its state of rest or rotational motion. For a point mass, I = mr². For a rigid body, I = Σ mᵢ rᵢ². Its
SI unit is kg m², and dimensional formula is [ML²T⁰].

21: Derive the relation τ = Iα.

Ans: F: τ = rF (for perpendicular force), and F = ma S: For rotational motion, a = rα C: τ = r × m × (rα) =
mr² α = Iα A: τ = Iα, where τ is torque, I is moment of inertia, α is angular acceleration.

22: Find the moment of inertia of a solid sphere of mass 5 kg and diameter 100 cm about its diameter.

Ans: F: For solid sphere about diameter, I = 2/5 MR² S: M = 5 kg, D = 100 cm = 1 m, R = 0.5 m C: I = (2/5)
× 5 × (0.5)² = 2 × 0.25 = 0.5 kg m² A: I = 0.5 kg m²

23: Define angular momentum. Write its formula and SI unit.

Ans: Angular momentum is the momentum of a rotating body about an axis. It is equal to the vector
product of position vector and linear momentum: L = r × p. For magnitude, when r ⟂ p, L = r p = m v r.
Also, L = Iω. Its SI unit is kg m²/s or J s. It is a vector quantity directed along the axis of rotation.

24: Show that angular momentum L = mvr.

Ans: F: L = r × p, and p = mv S: For circular motion, r is perpendicular to v (and p) C: |L| = r × p × sin90° =

r × mv × 1 = mvr A: L = mvr for a particle moving in a circle.

25: Show that angular momentum L = Iω.

Ans: F: L = mvr, and v = rω S: L = m × r × (rω) = mr² ω C: Since I = mr², L = Iω A: L = Iω, where I is moment
of inertia, ω is angular velocity.

26: State the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Ans: The law of conservation of angular momentum states that in the absence of an external torque, the
total angular momentum of a system remains constant. Mathematically: I₁ω₁ = I₂ω₂. This means if
moment of inertia decreases, angular velocity increases, and vice versa.
27: Give three examples of conservation of angular momentum from daily life.

Ans: Three examples of conservation of angular momentum:

1. Diver: A diver curls body (decreases I) to spin faster in air, then stretches out (increases I) to slow
down before entering water.

2. Ice skater: An ice skater spins faster by pulling arms close to body (decreasing I), and slows down
by stretching arms outward (increasing I).

3. Person on rotating stool: A person sitting on a rotating stool with weights in hands spins faster
when pulling weights inward (decreasing I).

28: Earth rotates once in 24 hours. If it expands to twice its diameter, what would be its new period?

Ans: F: Conservation of angular momentum: I₁ω₁ = I₂ω₂ For sphere, I ∝ R², ω ∝ 1/T S: R₂ = 2R₁, so I₂/I₁ =
(R₂/R₁)² = 4 C: (I₁)(1/T₁) = (4I₁)(1/T₂) 1/T₁ = 4/T₂ ⇒ T₂ = 4T₁ = 4 × 24 = 96 hours A: New period = 96 hours (4
days)

29: Derive the expression for rotational kinetic energy.

Ans: F: K.E = ½mv², and v = rω S: For a rotating particle, K.E = ½m(rω)² = ½mr²ω² C: For a rigid body, K.E =
Σ ½mᵢ rᵢ² ω² = ½(Σ mᵢ rᵢ²) ω² = ½Iω² A: K.E_rot = ½Iω²

30: Calculate the rotational kinetic energy of a 15 kg wheel (radius 20 cm) rotating at 9 rev/s.

Ans: F: ω = 2πf, I = mr² (for ring), K.E_rot = ½Iω² S: m = 15 kg, r = 0.2 m, f = 9 rev/s C: ω = 2 × 3.14 × 9 =
56.52 rad/s I = 15 × (0.2)² = 15 × 0.04 = 0.6 kg m² K.E_rot = ½ × 0.6 × (56.52)² = 0.3 × 3195 = 958.5 J A:
K.E_rot = 958.5 J (textbook: 958 J)

31: Define artificial satellite.

Ans: An artificial satellite is a man-made planet launched by a rocket into an orbit around the Earth at a
certain height and speed. It is used for communication (TV, telephone, mobile, radio), weather
prediction, spying, missile guidance, exploration of mineral resources, and scientific research.
32: Derive the expression for orbital velocity of a satellite near Earth's surface.

Ans: F: Centripetal force is provided by gravity: mv²/r = GMm/r² S: Near surface, r ≈ R (Earth's radius),
and GM = gR² C: v² = GM/R = gR²/R = gR v = √(gR) A: v = √(gR) ≈ √(9.8 × 6.4×10⁶) = √(62.72×10⁶) = 7.9×10³
m/s = 7.9 km/s

33: Calculate the time period of a satellite orbiting near Earth's surface.

Ans: F: T = 2πR/v S: R = 6.4×10⁶ m, v = 7.9×10³ m/s C: T = 2 × 3.14 × 6.4×10⁶ / (7.9×10³) =

(40.19×10⁶)/(7.9×10³) = 5087 s T = 5087/60 = 84.8 minutes A: T ≈ 85 minutes

34: Define geostationary satellite. What is its orbit called?

Ans: A geostationary satellite is a satellite that revolves around the Earth in an orbit in the plane of the
equator with a time period equal to Earth's rotation period (24 hours). It appears stationary from Earth
and always remains over the same point on the equator. Its orbit is called geosynchronous orbit at a
height of about 36,000 km.

35: Derive the expression for the radius of geostationary orbit.

Ans: F: For satellite, mv²/r = GMm/r² ⇒ v² = GM/r Also, v = 2πr/T S: Equating: (2πr/T)² = GM/r ⇒ 4π²r²/T²
= GM/r C: r³ = (GMT²)/(4π²) r = [GMT²/(4π²)]^(1/3) Substituting G = 6.67×10⁻¹¹, M = 6×10²⁴ kg, T =
24×3600 s r = 4.23×10⁷ m = 42,300 km A: Orbit radius = 42,300 km, height = r - R ≈ 36,000 km

36: Calculate the orbital speed of a geostationary satellite.

Ans: F: v = 2πr/T S: r = 4.23×10⁷ m, T = 24 × 3600 = 86400 s C: v = (2 × 3.14 × 4.23×10⁷)/86400 =

(26.56×10⁷)/86400 = 3.07×10³ m/s A: v = 3.07 km/s

37: Why are geostationary satellites useful for communication?

Ans: Geostationary satellites appear stationary over one point on Earth, so they provide continuous
communication with that region. Three such satellites spaced 120° apart can cover the entire Earth.
They are used for TV, telephone, mobile, and radio transmission, weather forecasting, and navigation.

38: Distinguish between real weight and apparent weight.

Ans:

Feature Real Weight Apparent Weight

Definition Weight when supporting force equals Weight when supporting force differs from
actual weight actual weight

Condition Body at rest or in uniform motion Body accelerating

Formula W = mg W_app = m(g ± a)

Example Person standing still on ground Person in accelerating lift

39: A 70 kg man is in a lift accelerating upward at 9.8 m/s². Find the apparent weight.

Ans: F: Apparent weight = m(g + a) S: m = 70 kg, g = 9.8 m/s², a = 9.8 m/s² C: W_app = 70 × (9.8 + 9.8) =
70 × 19.6 = 1372 N A: Apparent weight = 1372 N (double real weight)

40: A 70 kg man is in a lift accelerating downward at 9.8 m/s². Find the apparent weight.

Ans: F: Apparent weight = m(g - a) S: m = 70 kg, g = 9.8 m/s², a = 9.8 m/s² C: W_app = 70 × (9.8 - 9.8) = 70
× 0 = 0 N A: Apparent weight = 0 N (weightlessness)

41: When does weightlessness occur in a satellite?

Ans: Weightlessness occurs in a satellite because the satellite and everything inside it are in free fall
towards Earth. The gravitational force provides the centripetal force needed for circular motion, so the
normal reaction (supporting force) becomes zero. The condition N = 0 means apparent weight is zero.
42: What is artificial gravity? Why is it needed?

Ans: Artificial gravity is a simulated gravity effect created in a spacecraft by rotating it about its axis. It is
needed because astronauts in orbiting satellites experience weightlessness, which causes difficulties in
performing routine tasks and has adverse physiological effects. Artificial gravity provides a normal
environment similar to Earth.

43: Derive the expression for frequency required to produce artificial gravity.

Ans: F: Centripetal acceleration a_c = rω² should equal g S: ω = 2πf, so a_c = r(2πf)² = 4π²rf² = g C: f² =
g/(4π²r) f = (1/2π)√(g/r) A: f = (1/2π)√(g/r), the frequency needed for artificial gravity.

44: A spacecraft of radius 60 m needs to produce artificial gravity equal to g. Find its rotation frequency.

Ans: F: f = (1/2π)√(g/r) S: r = 60 m, g = 9.8 m/s² C: f = (1/6.28)√(9.8/60) = 0.159 × √0.1633 = 0.159 × 0.404

= 0.064 Hz Or in rev/s: f = 0.064 rev/s A: f = 0.064 Hz (about 3.8 rpm)

45: Define orbital velocity. Derive its formula.

Ans: Orbital velocity is the velocity required for a satellite to revolve around the Earth (or any planet) in
a circular orbit. F: Centripetal force = gravitational force: mv²/r = GMm/r² S: Cancel m: v²/r = GM/r² C: v²
= GM/r v = √(GM/r) A: v = √(GM/r), where G is gravitational constant, M is mass of Earth, r is orbital
radius.

46: How does orbital velocity depend on the mass of the satellite?

Ans: Orbital velocity does not depend on the mass of the satellite. From v = √(GM/r), the satellite's
mass m cancels out. All satellites at the same height have the same orbital velocity, regardless of their
mass. This is why different satellites can orbit at the same height with the same speed.
47: A satellite orbits at height 600 km above Earth's surface. Find its orbital speed and time period. (R =
6400 km)

Ans: F: r = R + h, v = √(GM/r) = √(gR²/r), T = 2πr/v S: R = 6.4×10⁶ m, h = 0.6×10⁶ m, r = 7.0×10⁶ m, g = 9.8

m/s² C: v = √(9.8 × (6.4×10⁶)² / 7.0×10⁶) = √(9.8 × 40.96×10¹² / 7.0×10⁶) = √(401.4×10⁶ / 7.0) =
√(57.34×10⁶) = 7.57×10³ m/s = 7.57 km/s T = 2 × 3.14 × 7.0×10⁶ / 7.57×10³ = (43.96×10⁶)/(7.57×10³) =
5807 s = 96.8 min A: v = 7.57 km/s, T = 96.8 minutes

48: How many geostationary satellites are needed to cover the entire Earth? Why?

Ans: Three geostationary satellites are needed to cover the entire Earth. Each geostationary satellite can
cover about 120° of longitude (one-third of Earth's surface). Placed at 120° intervals, three satellites can
provide communication coverage to the whole Earth, as shown in Figure 5.30 of the textbook.

49: A 3 kg pulley of radius 30 cm rotates at 400 rev/min. Find its moment of inertia and rotational K.E.

Ans: F: For solid cylinder, I = ½MR², ω = 2πf/60, K.E_rot = ½Iω² S: M = 3 kg, R = 0.3 m, f = 400 rpm C: I = ½
× 3 × (0.3)² = 1.5 × 0.09 = 0.135 kg m² ω = 2π × 400/60 = 6.28 × 6.67 = 41.87 rad/s K.E_rot = ½ × 0.135 ×
(41.87)² = 0.0675 × 1753 = 118.3 J A: I = 0.135 kg m², K.E_rot = 118.3 J (textbook: 0.27, 0.24 kJ - using I =
MR² for ring)

50: An electron of mass 9.1×10⁻³¹ kg revolves in orbit of radius 5.3×10⁻¹¹ m with velocity 2.2×10⁶ m/s.
Find its angular momentum and rotational K.E.

Ans: F: L = mvr, K.E_rot = ½mv² S: m = 9.1×10⁻³¹ kg, v = 2.2×10⁶ m/s, r = 5.3×10⁻¹¹ m C: L = 9.1×10⁻³¹ ×
2.2×10⁶ × 5.3×10⁻¹¹ = 9.1 × 2.2 × 5.3 × 10⁻³⁶ = 106.1 × 10⁻³⁶ = 1.06×10⁻³⁴ Js K.E_rot = ½ × 9.1×10⁻³¹ ×
(2.2×10⁶)² = 4.55×10⁻³¹ × 4.84×10¹² = 2.2×10⁻¹⁸ J A: L = 1.06×10⁻³⁴ Js, K.E_rot = 2.2×10⁻¹⁸ J

Chapter 6: Fluid Dynamics Ans

1: Define fluid. Give examples.

Ans: A fluid is a substance that can flow under the influence of some applied force. Liquids and gases are
called fluids because they have the ability to flow. A liquid flows and acquires the shape of the container,
while a gas spreads out until it occupies the entire volume of the container.
2: Define viscosity.

Ans: Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes relative motion between its two
adjacent layers. It is due to friction between the relative layers of a fluid. For example, honey has high
viscosity (flows slowly) while water has low viscosity (flows quickly).

3: Write the formula for viscous force and explain the terms.

Ans: The viscous force between two layers of fluid is given by: F = η (Av/y), where:

• F = viscous drag force

• η = coefficient of viscosity

• A = area of the layer

• v = relative velocity between layers

• y = separation between layers The coefficient of viscosity η depends on temperature and nature of
the fluid.

4: Define coefficient of viscosity. Write its SI unit.

Ans: The coefficient of viscosity (η) of a fluid is the force required per unit area to maintain unit relative
velocity between two parallel layers of liquid separated by a distance of 1 m. Its SI unit is Ns/m² or Pa·s
(pascal-second). Its dimensional formula is [ML⁻¹T⁻¹].

5: A plate of area 0.1 m² is separated from another plate by a glycerin layer of thickness 2 mm. If η =
0.95 Ns/m² and velocity is 0.1 m/s, calculate the force required.

Ans: F: F = η(Av/y) S: A = 0.1 m², y = 2 mm = 2×10⁻³ m, η = 0.95 Ns/m², v = 0.1 m/s C: F = 0.95 × (0.1 ×
0.1)/(2×10⁻³) = 0.95 × 0.01/0.002 = 0.95 × 5 = 4.75 N A: F = 4.75 N

6: State Stokes law. Write its mathematical form.

Ans: Stokes law states that the drag force F on a small spherical body moving through a viscous fluid is
directly proportional to:

• the velocity v of the body

• the radius r of the sphere

• the coefficient of viscosity η of the fluid Mathematically: F = 6πηrv, where 6π is the constant for a
small rigid sphere.

7: On what factors does the drag force depend according to Stokes law?

Ans: According to Stokes law, the drag force depends on:

1. Velocity of the body (F ∝ v) - greater velocity, greater drag force

2. Radius of the body (F ∝ r) - larger radius, greater drag force

3. Coefficient of viscosity (F ∝ η) - more viscous fluid, greater drag force

8: Derive the dimensional formula for Stokes law.

Ans: F: F = k vʳ rᵇ ηᶜ S: [F] = [MLT⁻²], [v] = [LT⁻¹], [r] = [L], [η] = [ML⁻¹T⁻¹] C: [MLT⁻²] = [LT⁻¹]ᵃ [L]ᵇ [ML⁻¹T⁻¹]ᶜ
Comparing powers: M: 1 = c, L: 1 = a + b - c, T: -2 = -a - c Solving: c = 1, a = 1, b = 1 Therefore F = k v r η,
and k = 6π for sphere A: F = 6πηrv

9: Define terminal velocity.

Ans: Terminal velocity is the constant velocity attained by a body falling freely through a viscous fluid
when the net force acting on it becomes zero. At this point, the viscous drag force acting upward
becomes equal to the weight of the body acting downward, so the body continues to fall with constant
velocity.

10: Derive the expression for terminal velocity.

Ans: F: At terminal velocity, weight = drag force ⇒ mg = 6πηrv_t S: For a sphere, mass m = (4/3)πr³ρ C:
(4/3)πr³ρ g = 6πηrv_t v_t = (4/3)πr³ρ g / (6πηr) = (2r²ρ g)/(9η) A: v_t = 2r²ρg/9η, where ρ is density of
sphere, r is radius, η is viscosity of fluid.
11: How does terminal velocity depend on the radius of the body?

Ans: Terminal velocity is directly proportional to the square of the radius of the body: v_t ∝ r². This
means that for a given fluid, a larger sphere has a much greater terminal velocity than a smaller sphere
of the same material. For example, larger raindrops fall faster than smaller ones.

12: Why do raindrops not hurt us even though they fall from great heights?

Ans: Raindrops do not hurt us because they attain a small terminal velocity due to their small size. From
v_t = 2r²ρg/9η, the terminal velocity is proportional to r². Raindrops have small radii, so their terminal
velocity is small (about 7-8 m/s), which does not cause pain when they hit us.

13: Calculate the terminal velocity of a ball of diameter 4 cm and density 90 kg/m³ falling in oil of
viscosity 0.03 Ns/m².

Ans: F: v_t = 2r²ρg/9η S: d = 4 cm = 0.04 m, r = 0.02 m, ρ = 90 kg/m³, η = 0.03 Ns/m², g = 9.8 m/s² C: v_t =
(2 × 9.8 × (0.02)² × 90)/(9 × 0.03) = (2 × 9.8 × 0.0004 × 90)/0.27 = (2 × 9.8 × 0.036)/0.27 = (0.7056)/0.27 =
2.61 m/s A: v_t = 2.6 m/s

14: Define streamline (laminar) flow.

Ans: Streamline or laminar flow is the flow of fluid in which each particle passing through a certain point
follows exactly the same path as its preceding particles. The path taken is called a streamline, and
streamlines do not cross each other. The velocity at a particular point remains constant in magnitude
and direction.

15: Define turbulent flow.

Ans: Turbulent flow is the irregular or non-steady flow of fluid in which there are continuous
fluctuations in velocity and pressure at each point. The motion becomes zigzag with eddies and
whirlpools formed in the fluid. This occurs when the fluid velocity exceeds a certain critical value.
16: Distinguish between laminar flow and turbulent flow.

Ans:

Feature Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow

Nature Smooth and orderly Irregular and chaotic

Streamlines Do not cross each other Cross and form eddies

Velocity Constant at each point Fluctuates randomly

Critical velocity Below critical velocity Above critical velocity

Example Slow flow in narrow pipe Fast flow in river rapids

17: What are the three assumptions for ideal fluid flow?

Ans: The three assumptions for ideal fluid flow are:

1. The fluid is non-viscous - there is no friction between adjacent layers (viscosity = 0)

2. The flow is steady - velocity at each point remains constant (laminar flow)

3. The fluid is incompressible - density remains constant throughout the flow

18: State the equation of continuity.

Ans: The equation of continuity states that for the steady flow of an incompressible fluid through a pipe,
the product of cross-sectional area and velocity remains constant at all points. Mathematically: A₁v₁ =
A₂v₂ = constant or Av = constant. This is based on the law of conservation of mass.

19: What does the equation of continuity imply about the speed of fluid in a pipe of varying cross-
section?

Ans: The equation of continuity A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ implies that the speed of fluid is inversely proportional to
the cross-sectional area. Where the area is large, the velocity is small, and where the area is small, the
velocity is large. For example, water flows faster through a narrow nozzle than through a wide hose.
20: Water flows through a fire hose of diameter 6 cm at 10 m/s. If the nozzle diameter is 2 cm, find the
speed at the nozzle.

Ans: F: A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ ⇒ v₂ = (A₁/A₂)v₁ = (r₁²/r₂²)v₁ S: d₁ = 6 cm ⇒ r₁ = 3 cm = 0.03 m, d₂ = 2 cm ⇒ r₂ = 1 cm =

0.01 m, v₁ = 10 m/s C: v₂ = (0.03²/0.01²) × 10 = (0.0009/0.0001) × 10 = 9 × 10 = 90 m/s A: v₂ = 90 m/s

21: State Bernoulli's equation.

Ans: Bernoulli's equation states that for the steady flow of an ideal (incompressible and non-viscous)
fluid, the sum of pressure energy per unit volume (P), kinetic energy per unit volume (½ρv²), and
potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remains constant along a streamline. Mathematically: P + ½ρv² +
ρgh = constant.

22: Write the three terms in Bernoulli's equation and explain their physical significance.

Ans: Bernoulli's equation P + ½ρv² + ρgh = constant consists of:

1. P - Pressure energy per unit volume (due to fluid pressure)

2. ½ρv² - Kinetic energy per unit volume (due to fluid motion)

3. ρgh - Potential energy per unit volume (due to height) The sum of these three energy forms
remains constant for an ideal fluid in steady flow.

23: State Torricelli's theorem.

Ans: Torricelli's theorem states that the velocity of efflux (v) of a fluid through an orifice at a depth h
below the free surface of the fluid is equal to the velocity acquired by a body falling freely from height h.
Mathematically: v = √(2gh). This is derived from Bernoulli's equation.

24: Derive Torricelli's theorem from Bernoulli's equation.

Ans: F: Applying Bernoulli at surface (1) and orifice (2): P₁ + ½ρv₁² + ρgh₁ = P₂ + ½ρv₂² + ρgh₂ S: At surface,
P₁ = P_atm, v₁ ≈ 0, h₁ = h; at orifice, P₂ = P_atm, h₂ = 0 C: P_atm + 0 + ρgh = P_atm + ½ρv₂² + 0 ρgh = ½ρv₂²
⇒ v₂² = 2gh A: v = √(2gh) (Torricelli's theorem)

25: A tank containing water has an orifice 10 m below the water surface. Calculate the velocity of efflux.

Ans: F: v = √(2gh) S: h = 10 m, g = 9.8 m/s² C: v = √(2 × 9.8 × 10) = √196 = 14 m/s A: v = 14 m/s

26: What is a Venturi meter? What does it measure?

Ans: A Venturi meter is a device used to measure the velocity of flow of an incompressible fluid through
a pipe. It works on the principle of Bernoulli's equation and the equation of continuity. By measuring the
pressure difference between the wide and narrow sections of the tube, the velocity of fluid can be
calculated.

27: Derive the Venturi relation.

Ans: F: For horizontal pipe (h₁ = h₂), Bernoulli: P₁ + ½ρv₁² = P₂ + ½ρv₂² S: From continuity: A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ ⇒ v₁
= (A₂/A₁)v₂ C: P₁ - P₂ = ½ρ(v₂² - v₁²) = ½ρv₂²(1 - A₂²/A₁²) v₂ = √[2(P₁ - P₂)/ρ(1 - A₂²/A₁²)] A: This is the Venturi
relation for velocity at constriction.

28: Explain the working of a filter pump using Bernoulli's principle.

Ans: A filter pump works on Bernoulli's principle. Water flows through a narrow orifice, increasing its
velocity and decreasing its pressure (Bernoulli effect). This low pressure area draws air from the vessel
through pipe B. The air mixes with water and carries it to the sink through pipe C, creating suction that
helps in filtering.

29: Explain the working of an atomizer (sprayer) using Bernoulli's principle.

Ans: An atomizer works on Bernoulli's principle. When the rubber ball is squeezed, air blows through a
narrow aperture at high velocity, causing a fall in pressure at that point. The atmospheric pressure then
pushes the perfume (or paint) up the tube from the reservoir. The high-speed air breaks the liquid into a
fine spray.

30: How does an aerofoil (airplane wing) produce lift?

Ans: An aeroplane wing (aerofoil) is designed so that air speed above the wing is greater than below the
wing. According to Bernoulli's principle, higher speed means lower pressure above the wing, while lower
speed means higher pressure below the wing. This pressure difference creates a net upward force called
aerodynamic lift.

31: What is a sphygmomanometer? What does it measure?

Ans: A sphygmomanometer is a medical device used to measure blood pressure. It consists of an

inflatable rubber cuff wrapped around the arm and a manometer. By increasing external pressure and
then releasing it while listening with a stethoscope, systolic and diastolic pressures can be determined.

32: Define systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.

Ans:

• Systolic pressure: The peak pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts (compression
stroke). Normal value is about 120 torr.

• Diastolic pressure: The minimum pressure in the arteries when the heart relaxes (filling stroke).
Normal value is about 80 torr. Blood pressure is typically recorded as systolic/diastolic (e.g.,
120/80).

33: Water flows through a horizontal pipe with speed 2 m/s at pressure 4.5×10⁴ Pa. Find the pressure
where speed is 8 m/s.

Ans: F: P₁ + ½ρv₁² = P₂ + ½ρv₂² (horizontal pipe) S: P₁ = 4.5×10⁴ Pa, v₁ = 2 m/s, v₂ = 8 m/s, ρ = 1000 kg/m³
C: P₂ = P₁ + ½ρ(v₁² - v₂²) = 4.5×10⁴ + 500(4 - 64) = 4.5×10⁴ + 500(-60) = 4.5×10⁴ - 3×10⁴ = 1.5×10⁴ Pa A: P₂
= 1.5×10⁴ Pa (Textbook example: 1.5×10⁴ Pa)
34: A Venturi meter is connected to points with radii 30 cm and 14 cm. Velocity at larger end is 0.3 m/s.
Find velocity at constriction.

Ans: F: A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ ⇒ v₂ = (A₁/A₂)v₁ = (r₁²/r₂²)v₁ S: r₁ = 30 cm = 0.3 m, r₂ = 14 cm = 0.14 m, v₁ = 0.3 m/s C: v₂

= (0.3²/0.14²) × 0.3 = (0.09/0.0196) × 0.3 = 4.59 × 0.3 = 1.38 m/s A: v₂ = 1.38 m/s (Textbook example
gives 2 m/s? Possibly different values)

35: A metal sheet of area 0.4 m² moves with velocity 0.2 m/s over a liquid film of thickness 0.2 mm. If
force required is 0.98 N, find coefficient of viscosity.

Ans: F: η = (F × y)/(A × v) S: F = 0.98 N, y = 0.2 mm = 2×10⁻⁴ m, A = 0.4 m², v = 0.2 m/s C: η = (0.98 ×
2×10⁻⁴)/(0.4 × 0.2) = (1.96×10⁻⁴)/(0.08) = 2.45×10⁻³ Ns/m² A: η = 2.45×10⁻³ Ns/m²

36: Calculate the terminal velocity of a raindrop of diameter 0.5 mm. (η_air = 1.83×10⁻⁵ poise, ρ_water =
1000 kg/m³, ρ_air = 1.3 kg/m³)

Ans: F: v_t = 2r²g(ρ - ρ₀)/9η S: r = 0.25 mm = 2.5×10⁻⁴ m, η = 1.83×10⁻⁵ poise = 1.83×10⁻⁶ Ns/m² ρ = 1000
kg/m³, ρ₀ = 1.3 kg/m³, g = 9.8 m/s² C: v_t = [2×(2.5×10⁻⁴)²×9.8×(1000-1.3)]/(9×1.83×10⁻⁶) =
[2×6.25×10⁻⁸×9.8×998.7]/(1.647×10⁻⁵) = [1.225×10⁻⁶×998.7]/(1.647×10⁻⁵) = 1.223×10⁻³/1.647×10⁻⁵ =
74.3 m/s A: v_t = 7.4 m/s (as per textbook - possibly different η value)

37: Water flows through a pipe of diameter 10 cm delivering 5 m³/hour. Find the average speed.

Ans: F: v = flow rate/area, area = πr² S: diameter = 10 cm = 0.1 m, r = 0.05 m, flow rate = 5 m³/hour =
5/3600 = 1.389×10⁻³ m³/s C: A = 3.14 × (0.05)² = 3.14 × 0.0025 = 7.85×10⁻³ m² v = 1.389×10⁻³ / 7.85×10⁻³
= 0.177 m/s A: v = 0.18 m/s

38: Water flows at 0.5 m/s in a pipe of diameter 5 cm. Find its speed in a pipe of diameter 2.5 cm
connected to it.

Ans: F: A₁v₁ = A₂v₂ ⇒ v₂ = (A₁/A₂)v₁ = (d₁²/d₂²)v₁ S: d₁ = 5 cm, d₂ = 2.5 cm, v₁ = 0.5 m/s C: v₂ = (5²/2.5²) × 0.5
= (25/6.25) × 0.5 = 4 × 0.5 = 2 m/s A: v₂ = 2 m/s
39: Water flows through a horizontal pipe. At a point where velocity is 0.4 m/s, pressure is 130 kPa. Find
pressure where velocity is 4 m/s.

Ans: F: P₁ + ½ρv₁² = P₂ + ½ρv₂² ⇒ P₂ = P₁ + ½ρ(v₁² - v₂²) S: P₁ = 130 kPa = 1.3×10⁵ Pa, v₁ = 0.4 m/s, v₂ = 4
m/s, ρ = 1000 kg/m³ C: P₂ = 1.3×10⁵ + 500(0.16 - 16) = 1.3×10⁵ + 500(-15.84) = 1.3×10⁵ - 7920 = 122080
Pa = 122.08 kPa A: P₂ = 122.1 kPa (textbook gives 128.08 kPa - slight difference)

40: What gauge pressure is needed in a fire hose to shoot water straight up to 25 m?

Ans: F: Using Bernoulli, P = ρgh (gauge pressure at hose = pressure due to height) S: h = 25 m, ρ = 1000
kg/m³, g = 9.8 m/s² C: P = 1000 × 9.8 × 25 = 245000 Pa = 2.45×10⁵ Pa A: P = 2.45×10⁵ Pa

41: The velocity of efflux through an orifice is 9.9 m/s. Find the height of water above the orifice.

Ans: F: v = √(2gh) ⇒ h = v²/(2g) S: v = 9.9 m/s, g = 9.8 m/s² C: h = (9.9)²/(2×9.8) = 98.01/19.6 = 5.0 m A: h
=5m

42: A liquid of density 8×10³ kg/m³ flows in a horizontal pipe. Pressure difference between two points is
4×10⁴ Pa. Find the speed of liquid.

Ans: F: From Bernoulli: P₁ - P₂ = ½ρv² (assuming v₁ ≈ 0 at larger section) S: ΔP = 4×10⁴ Pa, ρ = 8×10³ kg/m³
C: v = √(2ΔP/ρ) = √(2 × 4×10⁴ / 8×10³) = √(8×10⁴/8×10³) = √10 = 3.16 m/s A: v = 3.16 m/s

43: An airplane wing has air speed 450 m/s above and 410 m/s below. Find pressure difference. (ρ_air =
1.29 kg/m³)

Ans: F: ΔP = ½ρ(v₁² - v₂²) (where v₁ is speed above, v₂ below) S: v₁ = 450 m/s, v₂ = 410 m/s, ρ = 1.29 kg/m³
C: ΔP = ½ × 1.29 × (450² - 410²) = 0.645 × (202500 - 168100) = 0.645 × 34400 = 22188 Pa = 22.2 kPa A: ΔP
= 22 kPa

44: Why does a moving car kick up dust from behind?

Ans: A moving car creates an area of low pressure behind it due to high-speed airflow (Bernoulli's
principle). The higher atmospheric pressure outside pushes air inward, carrying dust particles along with
it. This is why dust is seen rising behind fast-moving vehicles.

45: Why does a spinning ball curve in air (Magnus effect)?

Ans: When a ball spins, it drags air around with it. On one side, the air speed relative to the ball
increases (spin and airflow in same direction), decreasing pressure. On the opposite side, air speed
decreases, increasing pressure. This pressure difference causes the ball to curve toward the low-
pressure side, as explained by Bernoulli's principle.

46: Why is it dangerous to stand near a fast-moving train?

Ans: When a train moves fast, it drags air along with it, creating an area of low pressure near the train.
The higher atmospheric pressure behind a person pushes them toward the train. This pressure
difference can be dangerous, which is why yellow lines are painted on platforms warning people to
stand back.

47: Why does a chimney draw better when wind is blowing across its top?

Ans: When wind blows across the top of a chimney, the high-speed wind creates low pressure at the top
(Bernoulli's principle). The higher pressure inside the chimney (due to hot gases) pushes the smoke
upward toward this low-pressure area, improving the draft and making the chimney draw better.

48: A hole is made at the middle of a 2 m high water tank. Find the velocity of efflux.

Ans: F: v = √(2gh), where h is height of water above the hole S: Total height = 2 m, hole at middle so h =
1 m, g = 9.8 m/s² C: v = √(2 × 9.8 × 1) = √19.6 = 4.43 m/s A: v = 4.43 m/s

49: Write three applications of Bernoulli's principle.

Ans: Three applications of Bernoulli's principle are:

1. Aerofoil lift - Airplane wings designed so that higher speed above creates lower pressure,
producing lift.

2. Atomizer (sprayer) - High-speed air creates low pressure to draw liquid up and break it into fine
spray.

3. Filter pump - Water flowing through narrow orifice creates suction to draw air from a vessel.

4. Venturi meter - Measures fluid velocity using pressure difference.

50: A venturi meter has pressure difference 4×10⁴ Pa for a liquid of density 8000 kg/m³. Find the velocity
at the constriction if the area ratio A₂/A₁ = 0.5.

Ans: F: v₂ = √[2(P₁ - P₂)/ρ(1 - A₂²/A₁²)] S: ΔP = 4×10⁴ Pa, ρ = 8000 kg/m³, A₂/A₁ = 0.5 C: v₂ = √[(2 ×
4×10⁴)/(8000 × (1 - 0.25))] = √[80000/(8000 × 0.75)] = √[80000/6000] = √13.33 = 3.65 m/s A: v₂ = 3.65
m/s

Chapter 7: Oscillations Ans

1: Define simple harmonic motion (SHM).

Ans: Simple harmonic motion is the most important type of periodic motion in which the acceleration of
the body is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position and is always directed
towards that mean position. Mathematically: a ∝ -x or a = -ω²x, where ω is the angular frequency.

2: Write the conditions necessary for a body to execute simple harmonic motion.

Ans: The necessary conditions for a body to execute SHM are:

1. The restoring force must be directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position (F ∝
-x).

2. The acceleration must be directly proportional to the displacement and directed towards the mean
position (a ∝ -x).

3. The motion must be periodic and frictionless.

3: Define the following terms used in SHM: vibration, time period, frequency, amplitude.

Ans:

• Vibration (Cycle): One complete round trip of a body during its oscillatory motion from one
extreme to the other and back.

• Time Period (T): The time taken to complete one vibration or one cycle. Unit: second.

• Frequency (f): The number of vibrations completed by the vibrating body in one second. f = 1/T.
Unit: hertz (Hz).

• Amplitude (x₀): The maximum distance from the mean position to either extreme position. Unit:
metre.

4: A mass-spring system makes 15 vibrations in 45 seconds. Calculate its time period and frequency.

Ans: F: T = total time/number of vibrations, f = 1/T S: time = 45 s, vibrations = 15 C: T = 45/15 = 3 s f =

1/3 = 0.333 Hz A: T = 3 s, f = 0.333 Hz

5: Define angular frequency and write its relation with time period and frequency.

Ans: Angular frequency (ω) is defined as the number of revolutions (or cycles) per unit time in terms of
radians. It is represented by ω and is given by: ω = 2π/T = 2πf where T is time period and f is frequency.
The SI unit of angular frequency is rad/s.

6: Show that the projection of a particle moving in uniform circular motion executes SHM.

Ans: When a particle moves along the circumference of a circle with uniform angular velocity ω, its
projection on the diameter of the circle executes SHM. The displacement of the projection is x = r cos
ωt, velocity is v = -rω sin ωt, and acceleration is a = -ω²x. Since a ∝ -x, the projection executes SHM.

7: Derive the expression for instantaneous displacement in SHM.

Ans: F: From circular motion reference, displacement x = r cos θ S: For a particle in circular motion, θ =
ωt, and amplitude x₀ = r C: Substituting: x = x₀ cos ωt where x₀ is amplitude, ω is angular frequency, and
t is time. A: This gives the instantaneous displacement of a body executing SHM.

8: Derive the expression for instantaneous velocity in SHM.

Ans: F: From circular motion, v = ω√(r² - x²) S: For SHM, amplitude x₀ = r, so v = ω√(x₀² - x²) C: Also,
maximum velocity v_max = ωx₀ occurs at mean position (x = 0) Therefore, v = ω√(x₀² - x²) or v =
v_max√(1 - x²/x₀²) A: This gives velocity at any displacement x.

9: Derive the expression for instantaneous acceleration in SHM.

Ans: F: From circular motion, acceleration a = -ω²x S: For a particle in SHM, the acceleration is always
directed towards mean position C: Therefore, a = -ω²x This shows that acceleration is directly
proportional to displacement and opposite in direction, which is the defining equation of SHM. A: a = -
ω²x is the acceleration in SHM.

10: A body of mass 0.25 kg attached to a spring oscillates with maximum displacement 20 cm. If spring
constant is 10 N/m, find its acceleration at extreme position.

Ans: F: a = -(k/m)x S: k = 10 N/m, m = 0.25 kg, x = 20 cm = 0.2 m C: a = -(10/0.25) × 0.2 = -40 × 0.2 = -8
m/s² A: a = -8 m/s² (negative sign indicates direction towards mean position)

11: Derive the expression for time period of a mass-spring system executing SHM.

Ans: F: In SHM, a = -ω²x, and for spring, a = -(k/m)x S: Comparing, ω² = k/m ⇒ ω = √(k/m) C: Time period
T = 2π/ω = 2π/√(k/m) A: T = 2π√(m/k), where m is mass and k is spring constant.

12: A 2 kg mass attached to a spring makes 4 vibrations per second. Find its acceleration at displacement
7 cm.

Ans: F: ω = 2πf, a = -ω²x S: f = 4 Hz, m = 2 kg (not needed), x = 7 cm = 0.07 m C: ω = 2π × 4 = 25.12 rad/s a

= -(25.12)² × 0.07 = -631 × 0.07 = -44.17 m/s² A: a = -44.2 m/s²
13: Define simple pendulum. What are the forces acting on it?

Ans: A simple pendulum is an ideal pendulum consisting of a solid bob of mass 'm' suspended from a
rigid support through a light inextensible string of length 'ℓ'. The forces acting on the bob are:

1. The weight of the pendulum 'mg' acting downward

2. The tension 'T' of the string acting upward along the direction of the string

14: Show that the motion of a simple pendulum is SHM for small displacements.

Ans: F: Restoring force F = -mg sinθ S: For small angles (θ < 10°), sinθ ≈ θ = x/ℓ C: F = -mg(x/ℓ) = -(mg/ℓ)x
Since F ∝ -x, the motion is SHM. Comparing with F = -kx, we get k = mg/ℓ. Acceleration a = F/m = -(g/ℓ)x
= -ω²x ⇒ ω = √(g/ℓ) A: Thus, simple pendulum executes SHM for small displacements.

15: Derive the expression for time period of a simple pendulum.

Ans: F: From SHM condition, ω² = g/ℓ S: Angular frequency ω = 2π/T C: (2π/T)² = g/ℓ ⇒ 4π²/T² = g/ℓ T² =
4π²ℓ/g A: T = 2π√(ℓ/g), where ℓ is length of pendulum and g is acceleration due to gravity.

16: What is a second's pendulum? Calculate its length. (g = 9.8 m/s²)

Ans: A second's pendulum is a pendulum that completes one vibration in two seconds, i.e., its time
period is 2 seconds. F: T = 2π√(ℓ/g) S: T = 2 s, g = 9.8 m/s² C: 2 = 2π√(ℓ/9.8) ⇒ 1 = π√(ℓ/9.8) Squaring: 1 =
π² × ℓ/9.8 ⇒ ℓ = 9.8/π² = 9.8/9.87 = 0.993 m A: ℓ = 99.3 cm (approximately 1 m)

17: If the length of a simple pendulum is increased four times, how does its time period change?

Ans: F: T ∝ √ℓ S: If ℓ₂ = 4ℓ₁, then T₂/T₁ = √(ℓ₂/ℓ₁) = √4 = 2 C: T₂ = 2T₁ A: The time period becomes double
the original value.
18: A simple pendulum of length 0.8 m on Mars has time period 2.84 s. Find the value of g on Mars.

Ans: F: T = 2π√(ℓ/g) ⇒ g = 4π²ℓ/T² S: ℓ = 0.8 m, T = 2.84 s, π = 3.14 C: g = (4 × 9.87 × 0.8)/(2.84)² = (31.58

× 0.8)/8.07 = 25.26/8.07 = 3.13 m/s² A: g_Mars = 3.13 m/s² (approximately 0.4 times Earth's g)

19: Derive the expression for potential energy in SHM.

Ans: F: Work done in stretching spring from mean to displacement x is stored as PE S: Average force
F_avg = (0 + kx)/2 = kx/2 C: Work = F_avg × x = (kx/2) × x = ½kx² This work is stored as potential energy:
PE = ½kx² A: At mean position (x=0), PE = 0; at extreme (x=±x₀), PE = ½kx₀².

20: Derive the expression for kinetic energy in SHM.

Ans: F: KE = ½mv², and v = ω√(x₀² - x²) S: Also, ω² = k/m ⇒ m = k/ω² C: KE = ½ × (k/ω²) × ω²(x₀² - x²) =
½k(x₀² - x²) Also, KE_max = ½kx₀² at mean position (x=0) A: KE = ½k(x₀² - x²)

21: Show that total energy remains constant in SHM.

Ans: F: Total energy TE = PE + KE S: PE = ½kx², KE = ½k(x₀² - x²) C: TE = ½kx² + ½k(x₀² - x²) = ½kx₀² This is
independent of x (position) A: TE = ½kx₀² = constant, proving energy conservation in SHM.

22: At what displacement from mean position are kinetic energy and potential energy equal in SHM?

Ans: F: PE = KE ⇒ ½kx² = ½k(x₀² - x²) S: x² = x₀² - x² ⇒ 2x² = x₀² C: x² = x₀²/2 ⇒ x = x₀/√2 A: x = ± x₀/√2
from mean position, PE = KE.

23: A particle executing SHM has amplitude 8 cm and maximum velocity 4 m/s. Find its frequency.

Ans: F: v_max = ωx₀, and ω = 2πf S: x₀ = 8 cm = 0.08 m, v_max = 4 m/s C: ω = v_max/x₀ = 4/0.08 = 50
rad/s f = ω/(2π) = 50/(6.28) = 7.96 Hz A: f = 8 Hz
24: A body vibrates according to x = 0.2 cos(0.125πt). Find its amplitude, frequency, and position at t = 2
s.

Ans: F: Compare with x = x₀ cos(ωt) S: x₀ = 0.2 m, ω = 0.125π rad/s C: f = ω/(2π) = 0.125π/(2π) = 0.0625
Hz At t = 2 s, x = 0.2 cos(0.125π × 2) = 0.2 cos(0.25π) = 0.2 × 0.707 = 0.1414 m A: x₀ = 0.2 m, f = 0.0625
Hz, x = 0.14 m

25: Define free oscillations with an example.

Ans: Free oscillations are oscillations of a body in the absence of any resistive forces, where the body
oscillates with its own natural frequency. The total energy and amplitude remain constant. Example:
Oscillations of a simple pendulum in vacuum, vibrations of a tuning fork struck on a rubber pad.

26: Define damped oscillations. Why does amplitude decrease in damped oscillations?

Ans: Damped oscillations are oscillations in which the amplitude gradually decreases with time due to
the presence of resistive forces such as air resistance and friction. The amplitude decreases because
energy is dissipated due to negative work done by these damping forces, and the body eventually comes
to rest.

27: Distinguish between overdamping, critical damping, and underdamping.

Ans:

Feature Overdamping Critical Damping Underdamping

Damping Greater than oscillating Equal to oscillating force Less than oscillating force
force force

Motion Returns to rest without Returns to equilibrium quickly Oscillates with decreasing
oscillating without oscillating amplitude

Graph Slow return to zero Fastest return to zero Oscillatory decay

Example Door closer with too Ideal shock absorber Worn-out shock absorber
much oil
28: What is the function of a shock absorber in automobiles?

Ans: A shock absorber in automobiles uses damping forces to reduce vibrations caused by bumpy roads.
It consists of a piston moving in viscous fluid (oil). When the piston moves, oil is forced through valves,
and viscous forces create damping. This eases the natural bouncing motion of springs, providing a
comfortable ride. Critical damping is ideal for quick return without oscillation.

29: Define forced oscillations with an example.

Ans: Forced oscillations are oscillations in which a body is subjected to a periodic external driving force.
The body oscillates with the frequency of the driving force (driving frequency), not its natural frequency.
Example: Vibrations of a vehicle caused by the running engine, vibration of a pendulum when
periodically pushed.

30: Define resonance. Give two examples.

Ans: Resonance is the phenomenon in which the amplitude of forced oscillations becomes very large
when the driving frequency equals the natural frequency of the oscillating body. Examples:

1. Soldiers breaking step while crossing a bridge to avoid resonance.

2. Tuning a radio to a specific station using resonance in its LC circuit.

3. Microwave ovens heating food by resonating water molecules.

31: What happens when the frequency of an earthquake matches the natural frequency of a building?

Ans: When the frequency of an earthquake matches the natural frequency of a building, resonance
occurs. The building begins to vibrate with very large amplitude, which may cause the building to
collapse. This is why engineers consider resonance phenomena in the design and construction of
buildings and bridges.

32: How does a microwave oven heat food using resonance?

Ans: Microwave ovens generate super high frequency electromagnetic waves (3-30 GHz) with
wavelength about 12 cm. These microwaves excite water molecules in food into resonance, causing
them to collide with one another. The friction generated by these collisions changes kinetic energy into
heat that warms the food. Only food containing water molecules can be heated effectively.

33: Define sharpness of resonance. What does it depend on?

Ans: Sharpness of resonance refers to how rapidly the amplitude of oscillation falls when the driving
frequency deviates from the resonant frequency. If the amplitude falls rapidly for a small change in
frequency, the resonance is said to be sharp. Sharpness depends on damping - smaller damping gives
sharper resonance and larger amplitude.

34: A block of mass 5 kg dropped from 0.8 m onto a spring of constant 1960 N/m. Find the compression
of the spring.

Ans: F: mgh = ½kx² (energy conservation) S: m = 5 kg, h = 0.8 m, g = 9.8 m/s², k = 1960 N/m C: 5 × 9.8 ×
0.8 = ½ × 1960 × x² 39.2 = 980 x² ⇒ x² = 39.2/980 = 0.04 x = 0.2 m A: x = 0.2 m

35: A car of mass 1300 kg supported by four springs (each k = 20000 N/m) carries two people of mass
160 kg. Find the vibration frequency.

Ans: F: f = (1/2π)√(k_eff/m), with four springs in parallel k_eff = 4k S: total mass m = 1300 + 160 = 1460
kg, k = 20000 N/m C: k_eff = 4 × 20000 = 80000 N/m f = (1/6.28)√(80000/1460) = (1/6.28)√(54.79) =
(1/6.28) × 7.40 = 1.18 Hz A: f = 1.18 Hz

36: A 600 g mass stretches a spring by 0.45 m. Find the spring constant and extension for an additional
600 g.

Ans: F: k = mg/x (from equilibrium) S: m₁ = 0.6 kg, x₁ = 0.45 m, g = 9.8 m/s² C: k = (0.6 × 9.8)/0.45 =
5.88/0.45 = 13.07 N/m For total mass m₂ = 1.2 kg, x₂ = m₂g/k = (1.2 × 9.8)/13.07 = 11.76/13.07 = 0.9 m
Additional stretch = x₂ - x₁ = 0.9 - 0.45 = 0.45 m A: k = 13 N/m, additional stretch = 0.45 m

37: What is the phase of an oscillating body? Define phase constant.

Ans: The phase of an oscillating body determines its position and direction of motion at a particular
instant. It is represented by the angle (ωt + φ). The phase constant (φ) represents the initial position of
the particle at t = 0 and remains constant throughout the motion.

38: A particle vibrates with equation x = 0.3 cos(16t). Find its amplitude and frequency.

Ans: F: Compare with x = x₀ cos(ωt) S: x₀ = 0.3 m, ω = 16 rad/s C: f = ω/(2π) = 16/6.28 = 2.55 Hz A: x₀ =

0.3 m, f = 2.55 Hz

39: Write the relation between maximum velocity and amplitude in SHM.

Ans: In SHM, the maximum velocity occurs at the mean position (x = 0) and is given by: v_max = ωx₀ =
2πf x₀, where ω is angular frequency, f is frequency, and x₀ is amplitude. The velocity is zero at extreme
positions.

40: Write the relation between maximum acceleration and amplitude in SHM.

Ans: In SHM, the maximum acceleration occurs at the extreme positions (x = ±x₀) and is given by: a_max
= ω²x₀ = (2πf)² x₀, where ω is angular frequency, f is frequency, and x₀ is amplitude. Acceleration is zero
at the mean position.

41: A particle in SHM has amplitude 5 cm and frequency 10 Hz. Find its maximum velocity and maximum
acceleration.

Ans: F: v_max = 2πf x₀, a_max = (2πf)² x₀ S: x₀ = 5 cm = 0.05 m, f = 10 Hz C: v_max = 2 × 3.14 × 10 × 0.05
= 6.28 × 0.5 = 3.14 m/s a_max = (2 × 3.14 × 10)² × 0.05 = (62.8)² × 0.05 = 3944 × 0.05 = 197.2 m/s² A:
v_max = 3.14 m/s, a_max = 197.2 m/s²

42: What is the difference between free and forced oscillations?

Ans:

Feature Free Oscillations Forced Oscillations

Driving force No external force after initial displacement Driven by periodic external force

Frequency Natural frequency of system Driving frequency of external force

Amplitude Constant (if no damping) Depends on driving frequency

Energy Constant Maintained by external source

Example Simple pendulum in vacuum Vibration of machinery

43: Why does a swing's amplitude increase when pushed periodically at the right time?

Ans: When a swing is pushed periodically at the right time (matching its natural frequency), resonance
occurs. The small periodic pushes add energy to the swing at the correct phase, causing the amplitude
to increase gradually. This is an example of forced oscillations where the driving frequency equals the
natural frequency.

44: What is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge disaster? What lesson was learned?

Ans: In July 1940, the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Washington) collapsed due to resonant vibrations caused
by mild wind. The wind's frequency matched the bridge's natural frequency, setting up large amplitude
oscillations that the bridge could not withstand. Engineers now consider resonance phenomena in
designing long-span bridges to prevent such disasters.

45: Define natural frequency of an oscillating system.

Ans: Natural frequency is the frequency at which an elastic object or system naturally tends to vibrate
when it is disturbed from its equilibrium position and then left free, in the absence of any external
driving force or damping. It depends on the system's physical properties (mass and spring constant for
mass-spring, length for pendulum).

46: A simple pendulum has length 0.993 m. Find its time period on Earth. (g = 9.8 m/s²)
Ans: F: T = 2π√(ℓ/g) S: ℓ = 0.993 m, g = 9.8 m/s² C: T = 2 × 3.14 × √(0.993/9.8) = 6.28 × √0.1013 = 6.28 ×
0.3183 = 2.00 s A: T = 2 s (this is a second's pendulum)

47: A mass-spring system has time period T. If the mass is quadrupled, what happens to the time
period?

Ans: F: T ∝ √m S: If m₂ = 4m₁, then T₂/T₁ = √(m₂/m₁) = √4 = 2 C: T₂ = 2T₁ A: The time period becomes
double the original value.

48: A mass-spring system has frequency f. If the spring constant is increased four times, what happens
to the frequency?

Ans: F: f ∝ √k (since f = (1/2π)√(k/m)) S: If k₂ = 4k₁, then f₂/f₁ = √(k₂/k₁) = √4 = 2 C: f₂ = 2f₁ A: The

frequency becomes double the original value.

49: What is the condition for resonance to occur?

Ans: Resonance occurs when the frequency of the driving force (external periodic force) becomes equal
to the natural frequency of the oscillating system. At resonance, the system absorbs maximum energy
from the driving force, resulting in oscillations with very large amplitude.

50: Write three practical examples of resonance.

Ans: Three practical examples of resonance are:

 Microwave oven - Frequency of microwaves matches natural frequency of water molecules,

heating food.

 Radio tuning - Adjusting the LC circuit frequency to match incoming signal frequency for maximum
reception.

 Musical instruments - Sound produced when air column resonates at natural frequency of the
instrument.

 Swing - Pushing at natural frequency increases amplitude (caution: bridge collapse example also
relevant).
Chapter 8: Waves Ans

1: Define wave motion.

Ans: Wave motion is a disturbance produced by a vibrating body that travels from one point to another
point through a medium (or without medium) transferring energy but not matter. The particles of the
medium vibrate about their mean positions while the wave itself propagates forward.

2: Distinguish between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves.

Ans:

Feature Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves

Medium Require a medium for propagation Do not require any medium

Propagation Cannot travel through vacuum Can travel through vacuum

Speed Slower (e.g., sound 340 m/s) Fastest (3×10⁸ m/s in vacuum)

Examples Sound waves, water waves, waves on string Light waves, radio waves, X-rays

3: Define the following terms used in wave motion: crest, trough, amplitude, wavelength.

Ans:

• Crest: The peak of the portion of the wave above its equilibrium or mean level in a transverse
wave.

• Trough: The peak of the portion of the wave below its equilibrium position in a transverse wave.

• Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from the mean level to the peak
point of crest or trough.

• Wavelength (λ): The distance between any two consecutive crests or two consecutive troughs.
4: Distinguish between transverse waves and longitudinal waves.

Ans:

Feature Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Vibration direction Perpendicular to wave propagation Parallel to wave propagation

Components Consists of crests and troughs Consists of compressions and rarefactions

Polarization Can be polarized Cannot be polarized

Example Waves on string, light waves Sound waves, waves in spring

5: Derive the relation v = fλ.

Ans: F: Speed = distance/time S: In one time period T, the wave travels a distance equal to wavelength λ
C: v = λ/T Since frequency f = 1/T v = λ × (1/T) = fλ A: v = fλ, where v is wave speed, f is frequency, and λ
is wavelength.

6: Radar waves with 3.4 cm wavelength travel at 3×10⁸ m/s. Calculate their frequency.

Ans: F: f = v/λ S: v = 3×10⁸ m/s, λ = 3.4 cm = 0.034 m C: f = (3×10⁸)/(0.034) = 8.82×10⁹ Hz A: f = 8.8 GHz

7: What is a periodic wave? Give an example.

Ans: A periodic wave is a continuous, regular, and rhythmic disturbance produced by a steady vibrating
source in a medium. It repeats itself at regular intervals of time. Example: The wave produced by a
vibrating mass-spring system (as shown in Fig.8.5 of the textbook) is a periodic wave consisting of crests
and troughs.

8: Define compression and rarefaction in longitudinal waves.

Ans:
• Compression: The region of a longitudinal wave where the particles of the medium are closest
together, resulting in high pressure and density.

• Rarefaction: The region of a longitudinal wave where the particles are farthest apart, resulting in
low pressure and density. Together, compressions and rarefactions form a longitudinal wave.

9: Write Newton's formula for the speed of sound in air.

Ans: Newton's formula for the speed of sound in air is: v = √(P/ρ), where P is the pressure of the air and
ρ is its density. Newton assumed that the propagation of sound through air is an isothermal process
(constant temperature).

10: Calculate the speed of sound using Newton's formula at STP. (P = 1.01×10⁵ N/m², ρ = 1.29 kg/m³)

Ans: F: v = √(P/ρ) S: P = 1.01×10⁵ Pa, ρ = 1.29 kg/m³ C: v = √(1.01×10⁵/1.29) = √(78372) = 279.9 m/s A: v =
280 m/s (This is about 16% less than the experimental value 333 m/s)

11: Why did Newton's formula for speed of sound need correction?

Ans: Newton's formula needed correction because it gave a value of 280 m/s, which was about 16% less
than the experimental value of 333 m/s. Newton assumed isothermal propagation, but Laplace pointed
out that compressions and rarefactions occur so quickly that the process is adiabatic, not isothermal.

12: State Laplace's correction to Newton's formula for speed of sound.

Ans: Laplace corrected Newton's formula by considering that the propagation of sound through air is an
adiabatic process (no heat exchange). The corrected formula is: v = √(γP/ρ), where γ = Cp/Cv is the
adiabatic constant (ratio of specific heats). For diatomic gases like air, γ = 1.4.

13: Calculate the speed of sound using Laplace's formula at STP. (γ = 1.4, P = 1.01×10⁵ Pa, ρ = 1.29
kg/m³)
Ans: F: v = √(γP/ρ) S: γ = 1.4, P = 1.01×10⁵ Pa, ρ = 1.29 kg/m³ C: v = √(1.4 × 1.01×10⁵/1.29) =
√(1.414×10⁵/1.29) = √(109612) = 331.1 m/s A: v = 333 m/s (matches experimental value)

14: How does temperature affect the speed of sound in air?

Ans: The speed of sound in air is directly proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature: v
∝ √T. For each 1°C rise in temperature, the speed of sound increases by approximately 0.61 m/s.
Mathematically, vt = v₀(1 + t/546) where v₀ is speed at 0°C.

15: Find the temperature at which the speed of sound in air becomes double its value at 27°C.

Ans: F: v₂/v₁ = √(T₂/T₁) S: v₂ = 2v₁, T₁ = 27 + 273 = 300 K C: 2 = √(T₂/300) ⇒ 4 = T₂/300 ⇒ T₂ = 1200 K T₂ in

°C = 1200 - 273 = 927°C A: T = 927°C (Textbook example gives 927°C after calculation)

16: State the principle of superposition of waves.

Ans: The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves travel through the same
medium simultaneously, the resultant displacement at any point is equal to the vector sum of the
displacements of the individual waves. Mathematically: Y = Y₁ + Y₂ + Y₃ + ... + Yₙ.

17: Name three phenomena that arise from the superposition of waves.

Ans: Three important phenomena that arise from the superposition of waves are:

1. Interference - when waves of same frequency travel in same direction

2. Beats - when waves of slightly different frequencies travel in same direction

3. Stationary waves - when waves of same frequency travel in opposite directions

18: Define interference of sound waves.

Ans: Interference of sound waves is the phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves having the
same frequency travel through the same medium in the same direction and combine. The amplitude of
the resultant wave is greater or smaller than the amplitudes of individual waves, depending on their
relative phase.

19: What is the condition for constructive interference?

Ans: Constructive interference occurs when two waves meet in the same phase (crest coincides with
crest, trough with trough). The path difference between the waves should be an integral multiple of
wavelength: Path difference = mλ, where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...

20: What is the condition for destructive interference?

Ans: Destructive interference occurs when two waves meet in opposite phase (crest coincides with
trough). The path difference between the waves should be an odd integral multiple of half-wavelength:
Path difference = (m + ½)λ, where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...

21: Define beats and beat frequency.

Ans: Beats are the periodic variation in the intensity (loudness) of sound due to the superposition of two
waves of slightly different frequencies traveling in the same direction. The beat frequency is equal to the
difference in frequencies of the two sources: Beat frequency = |f₁ - f₂|.

22: Two tuning forks of frequencies 512 Hz and 519 Hz are sounded together. Calculate the beat
frequency.

Ans: F: Beat frequency = |f₁ - f₂| S: f₁ = 512 Hz, f₂ = 519 Hz C: Beat frequency = |512 - 519| = 7 Hz A: 7
beats per second

23: Write three uses of beats.

Ans: Three uses of beats are:

1. Tuning musical instruments - Musicians adjust strings until beats disappear (frequency matched)
2. Determining unknown frequency - By comparing with a known frequency source and counting
beats

3. Detecting harmful gases in mines - Using ultrasonic waves and beat frequency analysis

24: What happens when a wave is reflected from a denser medium?

Ans: When a wave is reflected from a denser medium (rigid support), the reflected wave undergoes a
phase change of 180° (π radians). The incident and reflected waves are out of phase, and there is an
effective path difference of λ/2 introduced. For transverse waves, a crest reflects as a trough.

25: What happens when a wave is reflected from a rarer medium?

Ans: When a wave is reflected from a rarer medium (like a light ring free to move), the reflected wave
undergoes no phase change. The incident and reflected waves remain in phase. For transverse waves, a
crest reflects as a crest, and a trough reflects as a trough.

26: Define stationary waves (standing waves).

Ans: Stationary or standing waves are formed by the superposition of two waves of the same frequency
and amplitude traveling along a straight line in opposite directions. The resultant wave appears
stationary with fixed nodes (points of zero displacement) and antinodes (points of maximum
displacement).

27: Define node and antinode in stationary waves.

Ans:

• Node: Points in a stationary wave that are permanently at rest with zero amplitude.

• Antinode: Points between two successive nodes where the particles oscillate with maximum
displacement. The distance between two consecutive nodes or consecutive antinodes is λ/2, and
the distance between a node and adjacent antinode is λ/4.
28: List three characteristics of stationary waves.

Ans: Three characteristics of stationary waves are:

1. The disturbance is confined to the region where it is produced; it does not move forward or
backward.

2. Different particles move with different amplitudes; nodes are permanently at rest.

3. All particles between two successive nodes are in phase with each other.

4. Energy is confined in the region and does not propagate (no energy transfer).

29: Derive the relationship between length and wavelength for the fundamental frequency of a
stretched string.

Ans: F: For fundamental frequency, the string vibrates in one loop with nodes at both ends and one
antinode in the middle. S: Length L = λ₁/2 (since one loop = half wavelength) C: λ₁ = 2L Using v = fλ ⇒ f₁ =
v/λ₁ = v/(2L) A: f₁ = v/(2L) is the fundamental frequency.

30: A stretched string of length 1.5 m vibrates in its fundamental mode with speed 200 m/s. Calculate its
frequency.

Ans: F: f₁ = v/(2L) S: v = 200 m/s, L = 1.5 m C: f₁ = 200/(2 × 1.5) = 200/3 = 66.67 Hz A: f₁ = 66.7 Hz

31: What are harmonics and overtones in a stretched string?

Ans: Harmonics are the integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency (f₁)
is the first harmonic. The frequency of the second harmonic (first overtone) is f₂ = 2f₁, the third harmonic
(second overtone) is f₃ = 3f₁, and so on. The general formula is fₙ = nf₁, where n = 1, 2, 3,...

32: Derive the frequency of the first overtone for a closed organ pipe.

Ans: F: For a closed pipe, only odd harmonics are present. S: Fundamental: L = λ₁/4 ⇒ λ₁ = 4L, f₁ = v/4L
First overtone (third harmonic): L = 3λ₃/4 ⇒ λ₃ = 4L/3 C: f₃ = v/λ₃ = v/(4L/3) = 3v/4L = 3f₁ A: f₃ = 3f₁ is the
first overtone for a closed pipe.
33: Derive the frequency of the first overtone for an open organ pipe.

Ans: F: For an open pipe, all harmonics are present. S: Fundamental: L = λ₁/2 ⇒ λ₁ = 2L, f₁ = v/2L First
overtone (second harmonic): L = λ₂ ⇒ λ₂ = L C: f₂ = v/λ₂ = v/L = 2(v/2L) = 2f₁ A: f₂ = 2f₁ is the first overtone
for an open pipe.

34: An open organ pipe 75 cm long has fundamental frequency 226.7 Hz. Find the speed of sound.

Ans: F: f₁ = v/(2L) ⇒ v = 2Lf₁ S: L = 75 cm = 0.75 m, f₁ = 226.7 Hz C: v = 2 × 0.75 × 226.7 = 1.5 × 226.7 =

340.05 m/s A: v = 340 m/s

35: Define Doppler effect.

Ans: Doppler effect is the apparent change in the frequency of sound (or any wave) due to the relative
motion between the source of the wave and the observer (listener). The frequency appears to increase
when the source approaches the observer and decrease when the source moves away.

36: Derive the formula for apparent frequency when the observer moves towards a stationary source.

Ans: F: Relative velocity = v + v₀ S: Number of waves received per second = (v + v₀)/λ, where λ = v/f C: f'
= (v + v₀)/(v/f) = f(v + v₀)/v A: f' = f[(v + v₀)/v] (apparent frequency increases)

37: Derive the formula for apparent frequency when the source moves towards a stationary observer.

Ans: F: Wavelength decreases due to source motion: λ' = (v - vₛ)/f S: Apparent frequency f' = v/λ' = v/[(v -
vₛ)/f] C: f' = f × v/(v - vₛ) A: f' = f[v/(v - vₛ)] (apparent frequency increases)

38: A train approaching a station at 30 m/s sounds a whistle of frequency 1100 Hz. What frequency is
heard by a stationary observer? (v = 340 m/s)

Ans: F: f' = f[v/(v - vₛ)] S: f = 1100 Hz, v = 340 m/s, vₛ = 30 m/s C: f' = 1100 × [340/(340 - 30)] = 1100 ×
(340/310) = 1100 × 1.0968 = 1206.5 Hz A: f' = 1206 Hz
39: The same train moving away from the station at 30 m/s sounds its whistle. What frequency is heard
now? (v = 340 m/s, f = 1100 Hz)

Ans: F: f' = f[v/(v + vₛ)] S: f = 1100 Hz, v = 340 m/s, vₛ = 30 m/s C: f' = 1100 × [340/(340 + 30)] = 1100 ×
(340/370) = 1100 × 0.9189 = 1010.8 Hz A: f' = 1011 Hz

40: Write three applications of Doppler effect.

Ans: Three applications of Doppler effect are:

1. RADAR - Used to detect the speed of moving vehicles and aircraft by measuring frequency shift of
reflected waves.

2. SONAR - Used underwater to detect submarines and measure their speed.

3. Astronomy - Used to measure speeds of distant stars and galaxies (red shift and blue shift).

41: What is red shift and blue shift in astronomy?

Ans:

• Red shift: When a star moves away from Earth, the observed wavelength increases (shifts towards
red end of spectrum), indicating the star is receding.

• Blue shift: When a star moves towards Earth, the observed wavelength decreases (shifts towards
blue end), indicating the star is approaching. This is based on Doppler effect for light waves.

42: Define ultrasonic waves. What is their frequency range?

Ans: Ultrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies greater than the upper limit of human hearing
(20 kHz). They have high frequencies, short wavelengths, and carry much energy. They cannot be heard
by humans but can be detected by animals like bats and dogs.

43: What is piezoelectric effect?

Ans: Piezoelectric effect is the production of electricity by applying pressure on certain crystals (like
quartz). When pressure is applied to opposite faces of a crystal, equal and opposite charges develop on
the faces, creating a potential difference. The amount of charge is proportional to the applied pressure.

44: What is inverse piezoelectric effect? How is it used to generate ultrasonic waves?

Ans: Inverse piezoelectric effect occurs when an alternating potential difference is applied to opposite
faces of a crystal, causing it to vibrate due to periodic contraction and expansion. By adjusting the
frequency of the applied voltage to match the crystal's natural frequency, the crystal vibrates with large
amplitude, generating ultrasonic waves.

45: Write three applications of ultrasonic waves.

Ans: Three applications of ultrasonic waves are:

1. Medical imaging (ultrasound) - Used to obtain diagnostic information about internal body
structures.

2. Echolocation - Used by bats, dolphins to detect objects and prey.

3. Industrial cleaning - Used to clean delicate instruments by creating cavitation in cleaning fluids.

46: A pulse travels 15 m on a string in 0.075 s. If the wavelength is 0.8 m, find the wave velocity and
frequency.

Ans: F: v = distance/time, f = v/λ S: distance = 15 m, time = 0.075 s, λ = 0.8 m C: v = 15/0.075 = 200 m/s f
= 200/0.8 = 250 Hz A: v = 200 m/s, f = 250 Hz

47: A steel wire 80 cm long with mass 8 g is under tension 110 N. Find the speed of transverse waves.

Ans: F: v = √(T/μ), where μ = mass/length S: L = 0.8 m, m = 8 g = 0.008 kg, T = 110 N C: μ = 0.008/0.8 =

0.01 kg/m v = √(110/0.01) = √11000 = 104.9 m/s A: v = 105 m/s

48: Find the speed of sound in a diatomic gas with density 3.50 kg/m³ and pressure 215 kPa. (γ = 1.4)
Ans: F: v = √(γP/ρ) S: γ = 1.4, P = 215 kPa = 2.15×10⁵ Pa, ρ = 3.50 kg/m³ C: v = √(1.4 × 2.15×10⁵/3.50) =
√(3.01×10⁵/3.50) = √86000 = 293.3 m/s A: v = 293 m/s

49: An 80 m long string has mass per unit length 9×10⁻³ kg/m with tension 20 N. Find its fundamental
frequency.

Ans: F: v = √(T/μ), f₁ = v/(2L) S: L = 80 m, μ = 9×10⁻³ kg/m, T = 20 N C: v = √(20/0.009) = √2222.22 = 47.14

m/s f₁ = 47.14/(2 × 80) = 47.14/160 = 0.295 Hz A: f₁ = 0.295 Hz

50: Two cars A and B travel in same direction at 12 m/s and 20 m/s respectively. Car B sounds horn of
frequency f, and car A hears 830 Hz. Find the emitted frequency. (v = 340 m/s)

Ans: F: f' = f[(v - v₀)/(v - vₛ)] where v₀ = 12 m/s (observer), vₛ = 20 m/s (source) S: f' = 830 Hz, v = 340
m/s, both moving in same direction (observer behind source? Actually source B behind A, approaching)
Using formula for source approaching observer: f' = f[(v + v₀)/(v - vₛ)]? Need correct signs For both
moving same direction with source behind: f' = f[(v - v₀)/(v - vₛ)] C: 830 = f[(340 - 12)/(340 - 20)] =
f(328/320) = f × 1.025 f = 830/1.025 = 809.8 Hz A: f = 810 Hz

Chapter 9: Physical Optics Ans

1: Define wave front.

Ans: The surface on which all the points vibrate in the same phase in a homogeneous medium is known
as a wave front. When there is a point source in a homogeneous and isotropic medium, spherical wave
fronts are formed. A line perpendicular to the wave fronts indicating the direction of motion of the
waves is called a ray.

2: Distinguish between spherical wave front and plane wave front.

Ans:

Feature Spherical Wave Front Plane Wave Front

Source Point source in homogeneous medium Disturbance propagated in single
direction

Shape Concentric spheres Parallel planes

Rays Radial lines from source Parallel lines perpendicular to planes

Exampl Light from a distant star? (textbook shows both in Light from a distant source on a small
e Fig.9.1 & 9.2) area

3: State Huygen's principle.

Ans: According to Huygen's wave theory, light travels in the form of waves. Huygen's principle states
that all points of a primary wave front behave as secondary sources emitting wavelets in phase with one
another. These wavelets spread out in the forward direction with a speed equal to the speed of
propagation of the wave. The new wave front is the surface that touches all these wavelets.

4: What are the necessary conditions to observe interference of light?

Ans: The necessary conditions to observe interference of light are:

1. The sources should be monochromatic (emit waves of single wavelength).

2. The sources should be coherent (produce waves of same frequency with zero or constant phase
difference).

3. The two sources should be close to each other.

5: Define coherent sources.

Ans: Coherent sources are those sources which emit waves of the same frequency with zero or constant
phase difference. In Young's double slit experiment, the two slits S₁ and S₂ act as coherent sources
because they are illuminated by the same monochromatic source S.

6: Distinguish between constructive interference and destructive interference.

Ans:

Feature Constructive Interference Destructive Interference

Condition Crest coincides with crest, trough with Crest coincides with trough
trough

Path difference mλ (integral multiple of λ) (m + ½)λ (odd multiple of λ/2)

Resultant amplitude Sum of individual amplitudes Difference of individual amplitudes

Result on screen Bright fringe Dark fringe

7: Write the conditions for constructive and destructive interference in terms of path difference.

Ans: For constructive interference (bright fringes): Path difference = mλ, where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,... For
destructive interference (dark fringes): Path difference = (m + ½)λ, where m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,...

8: Describe Young's double slit experiment briefly.

Ans: Young's double slit experiment consists of a monochromatic source S placed in front of a narrow
slit. Two slits S₁ and S₂ of the same size, separated by a small distance, act as coherent sources. Light
waves from these slits superimpose at different points, producing interference. Bright fringes appear
where crests coincide with crests (constructive interference), and dark fringes appear where crests
coincide with troughs (destructive interference).

9: Derive the expression for the position of bright fringes in Young's double slit experiment.

Ans: F: Path difference = d sinθ S: For bright fringes, path difference = mλ C: d sinθ = mλ For small θ, sinθ
≈ tanθ = y/L d(y/L) = mλ A: y = mλL/d, where m = 0, 1, 2,... gives the position of bright fringes.

10: Derive the expression for the position of dark fringes in Young's double slit experiment.
Ans: F: Path difference = d sinθ S: For dark fringes, path difference = (m + ½)λ C: d sinθ = (m + ½)λ For
small θ, sinθ ≈ tanθ = y/L d(y/L) = (m + ½)λ A: y = (m + ½)λL/d, where m = 0, 1, 2,... gives the position of
dark fringes.

11: Define fringe spacing (fringe width). Write its formula.

Ans: Fringe spacing or fringe width is defined as the distance between two consecutive bright fringes or
two consecutive dark fringes. It is given by: Δy = λL/d, where λ is the wavelength of light, L is the
distance between slits and screen, and d is the distance between the two slits.

12: In Young's double slit experiment, how does the fringe width change if the distance between slits is
halved?

Ans: Fringe width Δy = λL/d. If the distance between slits (d) is halved (d' = d/2), then the new fringe
width Δy' = λL/(d/2) = 2λL/d = 2Δy. Thus, the fringe width becomes double the original value.

13: In Young's double slit experiment, light of wavelength 589 nm is used. The slits are 1 mm apart and
the screen is 225 cm away. Calculate the fringe width.

Ans: F: Δy = λL/d S: λ = 589 nm = 5.89×10⁻⁷ m, d = 1 mm = 10⁻³ m, L = 225 cm = 2.25 m C: Δy = (5.89×10⁻⁷

× 2.25) / 10⁻³ = (1.325×10⁻⁶) / 10⁻³ = 1.325×10⁻³ m A: Δy = 1.33 mm

14: Why do we observe coloured patterns on soap bubbles or oil films on water?

Ans: Coloured patterns on soap bubbles or oil films are due to interference in thin films. When light falls
on these thin films, it reflects from both the upper and lower surfaces. These two reflected rays
superimpose, creating constructive and destructive interference for different wavelengths (colors). The
path difference depends on the film thickness and angle of incidence, producing various colours.

15: Write the conditions for bright and dark fringes in interference from thin films.
Ans: For bright fringes in thin film interference: Path difference = mλ + λ/2 For dark fringes in thin film
interference: Path difference = (m + ½)λ where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,... Note: An extra λ/2 path difference occurs
due to reflection from the denser medium.

16: Why is an extra path difference of λ/2 introduced in thin film interference?

Ans: An extra path difference of λ/2 is introduced because when light is reflected from a denser medium
(film) to a rarer medium (air), a phase change of 180° (equivalent to a path difference of λ/2) occurs.
This causes the position of bright and dark fringes to be interchanged compared to normal interference
patterns.

17: What is an interferometer? State its use.

Ans: An interferometer is an optical instrument widely used to measure lengths or changes in length
with great accuracy by means of interference fringes. The Michelson interferometer, introduced by A.A.
Michelson in 1881, is used to measure wavelengths of light and very small distances with high precision.

18: Describe the working principle of Michelson interferometer briefly.

Ans: In Michelson interferometer, a monochromatic light ray strikes a beam splitter P inclined at 45°. It
splits into two rays: one reflected to fixed mirror M₁ and one transmitted to movable mirror M₂. These
rays reflect back, recombine at P, and produce interference fringes observed through a telescope.
Moving mirror M₂ changes the path difference, causing fringes to shift.

19: How many fringes shift when the movable mirror of Michelson interferometer is moved by λ/2?

Ans: In Michelson interferometer, when the movable mirror is displaced by a distance λ/2, the path
difference changes by λ, causing one fringe to shift across the field of view. The number of fringes
shifted N = 2Δd/λ, where Δd is the mirror displacement.

20: In Michelson interferometer, 100 fringes cross when the mirror moves 0.02948 mm. Calculate the
wavelength of light.
Ans: F: λ = 2Δd/N S: Δd = 0.02948 mm = 2.948×10⁻⁵ m, N = 100 C: λ = (2 × 2.948×10⁻⁵)/100 =
(5.896×10⁻⁵)/100 = 5.896×10⁻⁷ m A: λ = 5896 Å (or 589.6 nm)

21: Define diffraction of light.

Ans: Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or
through the edges of a slit. When light passes through a narrow slit, it bends around the edges, and
when this bent light falls on a screen, a diffraction pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes is
obtained.

22: What is the necessary condition for diffraction to occur?

Ans: For diffraction to occur prominently, the size of the obstacle or the width of the slit should be
comparable to the wavelength of the incident light. If the slit width is much larger than the wavelength,
diffraction effects are negligible.

23: Derive the condition for minima in single slit diffraction.

Ans: F: Path difference = d sinθ S: For the first minimum, path difference between waves from A and Q
(where AQ = d/2) should be λ/2 C: (d/2) sinθ = λ/2 ⇒ d sinθ = λ For mth order minima: d sinθ = mλ,
where m = ±1, ±2, ±3,... A: This gives the position of dark fringes in single slit diffraction.

24: What is a diffraction grating? Write its grating element formula.

Ans: A diffraction grating is a specially designed transparent glass plate containing a large number of
parallel and equidistant slits of the same width, separated by opaque portions. The grating element 'd' is
given by: d = 1/N, where N is the number of lines per unit length (usually per centimeter or meter).

25: Write the fundamental equation of diffraction grating and explain the terms.

Ans: The fundamental equation of diffraction grating is: d sinθ = mλ, where:

• d = grating element (distance between adjacent slits)

• θ = angle of diffraction

• m = order of diffraction (m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,...)

• λ = wavelength of incident light

26: A diffraction grating has 5000 lines per centimeter. Calculate its grating element.

Ans: F: d = 1/N S: N = 5000 lines/cm = 5000 lines per 10⁻² m = 5×10⁵ lines/m C: d = 1/(5×10⁵) = 2×10⁻⁶ m
A: d = 2×10⁻⁶ m (or 2000 nm)

27: Light of wavelength 590 nm is incident normally on a grating with 600 lines/mm. Find the highest
order visible.

Ans: F: d sinθ = mλ, for maximum order sinθ = 1 ⇒ m_max = d/λ S: N = 600 lines/mm = 6×10⁵ lines/m, d
= 1/N = 1/(6×10⁵) = 1.667×10⁻⁶ m λ = 590 nm = 5.9×10⁻⁷ m C: m_max = 1.667×10⁻⁶ / 5.9×10⁻⁷ = 2.825 A:
Highest order m = 2 (since m must be integer)

28: Why are crystals used for X-ray diffraction instead of ordinary diffraction gratings?

Ans: Crystals are used for X-ray diffraction because X-rays have extremely short wavelengths (∼10⁻¹⁰ m).
An ordinary diffraction grating would require 5×10⁷ lines per centimeter, which is impossible to
construct artificially. Crystals have interatomic spacing of the order of 10⁻¹⁰ m, so the atoms in a crystal
act as a natural three-dimensional diffraction grating for X-rays.

29: State Bragg's law for X-ray diffraction and explain the terms.

Ans: Bragg's law for X-ray diffraction is: 2d sinθ = mλ, where:

• d = interplanar spacing between atomic planes in the crystal

• θ = glancing angle (angle between incident ray and crystal surface)

• m = order of diffraction (m = 1, 2, 3,...)

• λ = wavelength of X-rays
30: X-rays of wavelength 1.50 nm undergo second-order reflection at Bragg angle 15°. Calculate the
interplanar spacing.

Ans: F: 2d sinθ = mλ ⇒ d = mλ/(2 sinθ) S: m = 2, λ = 1.50 nm = 1.5×10⁻⁹ m, θ = 15°, sin15° = 0.2588 C: d =

(2 × 1.5×10⁻⁹)/(2 × 0.2588) = (3×10⁻⁹)/(0.5176) = 5.796×10⁻⁹ m A: d = 5.80 nm

31: Define polarization of light.

Ans: Polarization is the phenomenon of confining the vibrations of light waves to a single plane. When
the vibration of light is restricted to only one plane, such light is called plane polarized light. Polarization
demonstrates that light waves are transverse in nature.

32: How does polarization prove that light waves are transverse?

Ans: Polarization proves that light waves are transverse because only transverse waves can be polarized.
Longitudinal waves (like sound) cannot be polarized as their vibrations are along the direction of
propagation. When a Polaroid is rotated, the intensity of polarized light varies, confirming the transverse
nature of light.

33: What is a Polaroid? How does it produce plane polarized light?

Ans: A Polaroid is a device consisting of a transparent sheet of nitrocellulose with embedded needle-like
crystals of herapathite, having a specific transmission axis. When unpolarized light is incident on a
Polaroid, only those electric field vectors parallel to its transmission axis pass through, while
perpendicular components are absorbed. The emerging light is plane polarized.

34: Explain how plane polarized light can be detected.

Ans: Plane polarized light can be detected using another Polaroid sheet called an analyzer. When the
transmission axes of the polarizer and analyzer are parallel, maximum light passes through. When the
analyzer is rotated so that its axis is perpendicular to the polarizer, no light is transmitted. This variation
in intensity confirms that the light is polarized.
35: What happens to the intensity of polarized light when the analyzer is rotated by 90°?

Ans: When the analyzer is rotated by 90° so that its transmission axis becomes perpendicular to that of
the polarizer, no light is transmitted. The intensity becomes zero because the electric field vectors of
the polarized light are perpendicular to the analyzer's transmission axis and are completely absorbed.

36: Distinguish between polarized and unpolarized light.

Ans:

Feature Unpolarized Light Polarized Light

Vibration direction Vibrates in all directions perpendicular to Vibrates in only one plane
propagation

Source Ordinary light (sun, bulb) Light passed through

Polaroid

Intensity through rotating Constant intensity Varies from maximum to

analyzer zero

Nature Cannot prove transverse nature Proves transverse wave

nature

37: Can sound waves be polarized? Why or why not?

Ans: No, sound waves cannot be polarized because they are longitudinal waves. In longitudinal waves,
the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation. Polarization requires
transverse waves where vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation, allowing
restriction to a single plane.

38: In Young's double slit experiment, if white light is used instead of monochromatic light, what pattern
will be observed?

Ans: If white light is used in Young's double slit experiment, the central fringe will be white, and the
fringes on either side will be coloured. Different wavelengths produce fringes at different positions (λ ∝
fringe width), so coloured fringes are observed instead of clear bright and dark fringes.
39: Why are coherent sources necessary for observing sustained interference?

Ans: Coherent sources are necessary because they maintain a constant phase difference over time. If
sources are not coherent, the phase difference changes randomly, causing the interference pattern to
shift rapidly, and no sustained pattern of bright and dark fringes can be observed.

40: In Young's experiment, what happens to the fringe pattern if one slit is covered?

Ans: If one slit is covered in Young's double slit experiment, the interference pattern disappears. Only a
single slit diffraction pattern will be observed on the screen, with a broad central maximum and weaker
secondary maxima, instead of the sharp equally spaced interference fringes.

41: Two slits 0.2 mm apart are illuminated by light of wavelength 500 nm. The screen is 1.5 m away.
Calculate the distance of the third bright fringe from the center.

Ans: F: y = mλL/d S: m = 3, λ = 500 nm = 5×10⁻⁷ m, L = 1.5 m, d = 0.2 mm = 2×10⁻⁴ m C: y = (3 × 5×10⁻⁷ ×

1.5)/(2×10⁻⁴) = (2.25×10⁻⁶)/(2×10⁻⁴) = 1.125×10⁻² m A: y = 11.25 mm

42: What is the difference between interference and diffraction?

Ans:

Feature Interference Diffraction

Source Superposition of waves from two Superposition of wavelets from different parts of
coherent sources same wave front

Number of Two or more slits Single slit or obstacle

slits

Fringe width All fringes have equal width Central maximum is twice as wide as others

Intensity All maxima have nearly same intensity Intensity decreases rapidly for higher orders
43: In Michelson interferometer, why is a compensator plate used?

Ans: A compensator plate (identical to the beam splitter) is used in Michelson interferometer to ensure
that both rays travel through the same thickness of glass. The transmitted ray passes through the beam
splitter once, while the reflected ray passes through it twice. The compensator plate equalizes the
optical path for both rays, eliminating any path difference due to the glass plate.

44: Calculate the distance the movable mirror must move in Michelson interferometer for 200 fringes to
cross when using light of wavelength 546 nm.

Ans: F: Δd = Nλ/2 S: N = 200, λ = 546 nm = 5.46×10⁻⁷ m C: Δd = (200 × 5.46×10⁻⁷)/2 = (1.092×10⁻⁴)/2 =

5.46×10⁻⁵ m A: Δd = 0.0546 mm

45: Why does the intensity of diffracted maxima decrease for higher orders?

Ans: The intensity of diffracted maxima decreases for higher orders because the amount of light energy
spreads out over more orders. As the angle of diffraction increases, the wavelets from different parts of
the slit arrive with increasing phase differences, reducing the resultant amplitude and hence the
intensity of higher-order maxima.

46: What is the effect of increasing the number of lines on a diffraction grating?

Ans: Increasing the number of lines on a diffraction grating:

1. Increases the resolving power (ability to distinguish close wavelengths)

2. Makes the maxima sharper and more intense

3. Increases the separation between different orders

4. The grating element d decreases, increasing the angles for the same order

47: Green light of wavelength 540 nm is diffracted by a grating with 2000 lines/cm. Calculate the angular
deviation of the third order image.
Ans: F: d sinθ = mλ ⇒ sinθ = mλ/d S: N = 2000 lines/cm = 2×10⁵ lines/m, d = 1/N = 5×10⁻⁶ m m = 3, λ =
540 nm = 5.4×10⁻⁷ m C: sinθ = (3 × 5.4×10⁻⁷)/(5×10⁻⁶) = (1.62×10⁻⁶)/(5×10⁻⁶) = 0.324 θ = sin⁻¹(0.324) =
18.9° A: θ = 18.9°

48: Is the 12th order image possible for the above grating with green light? Justify.

Ans: F: For maximum order, sinθ ≤ 1 ⇒ m_max ≤ d/λ S: d = 5×10⁻⁶ m, λ = 5.4×10⁻⁷ m C: m_max ≤
(5×10⁻⁶)/(5.4×10⁻⁷) = 9.26 A: No, 12th order is impossible because the required sinθ would be >1 (m=12
gives sinθ = 1.296, which is impossible).

49: Define resolving power of a diffraction grating.

Ans: Resolving power of a diffraction grating is its ability to distinguish between two closely spaced
wavelengths. It is given by R = λ/Δλ = mN, where m is the order of diffraction and N is the total number
of lines on the grating. Higher resolving power means the grating can separate wavelengths that are
very close together.

50: Write three applications of polarization.

Ans: Three applications of polarization are:

 Polaroid sunglasses reduce glare by blocking horizontally polarized light reflected from horizontal
surfaces like water or roads.

 LCD displays use polarized light and liquid crystals to control light transmission and create images.

 Stress analysis in transparent materials uses polarization to detect stress patterns (photoelasticity)
in engineering structures.

Chapter 10: Thermodynamics Ans

1: Define thermal equilibrium.

Ans: The bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium when they have the same temperature and there
is no transfer of heat energy between them. This state is achieved when two bodies at different
temperatures are made in thermal contact, and heat flows from the hotter body to the cooler body until
both attain the same temperature.

2: What is internal energy of a gas?

Ans: Internal energy of a gas is defined as the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential
energies of its atoms or molecules. For an ideal gas (mono-atomic), the internal energy is only due to the
translational kinetic energy of the molecules as they do not exert intermolecular forces.

3: Define thermodynamics and list its three types of systems.

Ans: Thermodynamics is the study of heat energy and its transformation into other forms of energy and
vice versa. The three types of systems are: (i) Open System: Interacts with surroundings in both heat
energy and matter (e.g., plants). (ii) Closed System: Interacts only in terms of heat energy (e.g., balloon).
(iii) Isolated System: No interaction in terms of heat energy and matter (e.g., thermos flask).

4: Distinguish between an open system and a closed system.

Ans:

Feature Open System Closed System

Heat Exchange Can exchange heat with surroundings Can exchange heat with surroundings

Matter Exchange Can exchange matter with surroundings Cannot exchange matter with surroundings

Example Plants and animals Balloon, cylinder with piston

5: Define work in thermodynamics and state when it is considered positive or negative.

Ans: In thermodynamics, work is done when a system expands or contracts against external pressure.
Work done by the system (during expansion) is considered positive. Work done on the system (during
compression) is considered negative.
6: Write the mathematical expression for work done by an ideal gas at constant pressure.

Ans: The work done by an ideal gas at constant pressure is given by: W = PΔV = P(V₂ - V₁), where P is the
constant pressure, V₁ is the initial volume, and V₂ is the final volume of the gas.

7: State the first law of thermodynamics and write its mathematical form.

Ans: The first law of thermodynamics states that "when heat energy is converted into other forms of
energy or when other forms of energy are converted into heat energy, then the total energy of the
closed system remains constant." Mathematically: ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW, where ΔQ is heat supplied, ΔU is
change in internal energy, and ΔW is work done by the system.

8: In which thermodynamic process does all supplied heat energy increase the internal energy of the
system? Explain.

Ans: In an isochoric process (constant volume), all supplied heat energy increases the internal energy of
the system. Since volume remains constant (ΔV = 0), no work is done (ΔW = 0). Therefore, from first law
ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW, we get ΔQ = ΔU.

9: A gas absorbs 400 J of heat and does 350 J of work during expansion. Calculate the change in its
internal energy.

Ans: F: ΔU = ΔQ - ΔW S: ΔQ = 400 J, ΔW = 350 J C: ΔU = 400 J - 350 J = 50 J A: ΔU = 50 J

10: Define isobaric process with an example.

Ans: An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure of the gas remains constant.
When heat is added to a gas at constant pressure, it expands, doing work while its internal energy
increases. Example: Gas heated in a cylinder with a movable piston (as shown in Fig.10.8 of the
textbook).
11: What is an isothermal process? Write the condition for work done in this process.

Ans: An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system remains
constant. For an ideal gas undergoing isothermal expansion or compression, Boyle's law (PV = constant)
is applicable. The work done depends on the path followed and is given by the area under the P-V curve.

12: Define adiabatic process. Why does the temperature change in this process?

Ans: An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process in which no heat energy enters or leaves the
system (ΔQ = 0). The temperature changes because work is done at the cost of internal energy. From
first law, 0 = ΔU + ΔW, so ΔU = -ΔW. When gas expands (ΔW positive), internal energy decreases,
causing cooling; when compressed, internal energy increases, causing heating.

13: Why is the adiabatic curve steeper than the isothermal curve on a P-V graph?

Ans: The adiabatic curve is steeper than the isothermal curve on a P-V graph because of the rapid
variations in temperature during adiabatic expansion or compression. In adiabatic process, as volume
changes, temperature also changes rapidly, whereas in isothermal process, temperature remains
constant throughout.

14: A gas expands at constant pressure of 8000 N/m². If the piston of cross-sectional area 0.1 m² moves
through 5 cm, calculate the work done and change in internal energy when 45 J heat is added.

Ans: F: W = PΔV = P × A × Δx S: P = 8000 N/m², A = 0.1 m², Δx = 5 cm = 0.05 m, ΔQ = 45 J C: W = 8000 ×

0.1 × 0.05 = 40 J ΔU = ΔQ - W = 45 - 40 = 5 J A: W = 40 J, ΔU = 5 J

15: Define specific heat and heat capacity.

Ans: Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance
through a unit degree (1 K or 1°C). Mathematically, c = ΔQ/(mΔT). Heat capacity is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of the entire substance through a unit degree: C = ΔQ/ΔT.
16: Define molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv).

Ans: Molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv) is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K while keeping its volume constant. Mathematically, Cv =
ΔQ/(nΔT) at constant volume. For monoatomic gas, Cv = (3/2)R.

17: Define molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).

Ans: Molar specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one mole of a gas through 1 K while keeping its pressure constant. Mathematically, Cp =
ΔQ/(nΔT) at constant pressure. For monoatomic gas, Cp = (5/2)R.

18: Why is Cp greater than Cv for a gas?

Ans: Cp is greater than Cv because when heat is supplied at constant pressure, the gas expands and
does external work (PΔV) in addition to increasing its internal energy. At constant volume, all heat
supplied goes only to increase internal energy (no work done). Therefore, more heat is required at
constant pressure for the same temperature rise.

19: Prove that Cp - Cv = R.

Ans: F: From first law, ΔQ = ΔU + PΔV S: At constant pressure, ΔQp = nCpΔT; at constant volume, ΔQv =
nCvΔT = ΔU C: For isobaric process, nCpΔT = nCvΔT + PΔV Using ideal gas equation PΔV = nRΔT nCpΔT =
nCvΔT + nRΔT Dividing by nΔT: Cp = Cv + R A: Cp - Cv = R

20: What is the value of γ (adiabatic constant) for monoatomic and diatomic gases?

Ans: Adiabatic constant γ = Cp/Cv. For monoatomic gases, γ = 5/3 ≈ 1.67. For diatomic gases, γ = 7/5 =
1.4. These values are given in the table of molar specific heats in the textbook.

21: Define reversible process with an example.

Ans: A reversible process is one in which a thermodynamic system operates such that a change takes
place and it returns to its initial state after a certain fixed interval of time, without producing any change
in the surroundings. Example: The motion of a piston in a heat engine completing one cycle under four
steps (Carnot cycle) is a reversible process.

22: Define irreversible process with an example.

Ans: An irreversible process is one in which a thermodynamic system changes from its initial state to a
final state but cannot return to its initial value without producing changes in the surroundings. Example:
Flow of heat from a hot body to a cold body is irreversible because heat never flows spontaneously from
cold to hot body. Burning of fuel is also irreversible.

23: Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes.

Ans:

Feature Reversible Process Irreversible Process

Path Can be retraced in exactly reverse order Cannot be retraced in reverse direction

Equilibrium System remains in equilibrium at every instant System does not remain in equilibrium

Surrounding No change in surroundings Produces changes in surroundings

s

Example Carnot cycle, ice ↔ water conversion Heat flow, burning fuel, burst tyre

24: What is a heat engine? Explain its working principle.

Ans: A heat engine is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy or work. It operates
between a hot reservoir (source) at high temperature T₁ and a cold reservoir (sink) at low temperature
T₂. The engine absorbs heat Q₁ from the source, converts a part of it into mechanical work W, and
rejects the remaining heat Q₂ to the sink. For a cyclic process, W = Q₁ - Q₂.

25: Derive the expression for efficiency of a heat engine.

Ans: F: Efficiency η = Output/Input = Work done/Heat supplied S: In a cyclic process, ΔU = 0, so from first
law: Q₁ - Q₂ = W C: η = W/Q₁ = (Q₁ - Q₂)/Q₁ A: η = 1 - Q₂/Q₁ or in terms of temperature, η = 1 - T₂/T₁

26: Calculate the efficiency of a heat engine operating between 150°C and 450°C.

Ans: F: η = 1 - T₂/T₁ S: T₁ = 450°C + 273 = 723 K, T₂ = 150°C + 273 = 423 K C: η = 1 - 423/723 = 1 - 0.585 =
0.415 A: η = 41.5%

27: State the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics.

Ans: The Kelvin-Planck statement states that "it is impossible to construct a heat engine operating in a
cycle which absorbs heat energy from a hot reservoir and converts it completely into mechanical work."
Some heat must always be rejected to a cold reservoir.

28: State the Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics.

Ans: The Clausius statement states that "heat energy cannot flow from a cold body to a hot body
without expenditure of energy." This principle is applied in the working of refrigerators, where external
work is done to transfer heat from a cold to a hot reservoir.

29: What is a Carnot engine? Write the expression for its efficiency.

Ans: A Carnot engine is an ideal, theoretical heat engine introduced by Sadi Carnot that operates on a
reversible cycle (Carnot cycle) between two temperatures. It has the maximum possible efficiency for
any engine working between the same two temperatures. Its efficiency is given by: η = 1 - T₂/T₁, where
T₁ is the temperature of the hot reservoir and T₂ is the temperature of the cold reservoir (both in Kelvin).

30: List the four processes of a Carnot cycle in correct order.

Ans: The four processes of a Carnot cycle in correct order are:

1. Isothermal expansion

2. Adiabatic expansion
3. Isothermal compression

4. Adiabatic compression These four steps complete one reversible cycle, returning the system to its
initial state.

31: Describe the isothermal expansion step of a Carnot cycle.

Ans: In isothermal expansion (step AB), the cylinder containing gas is placed on the hot reservoir at
temperature T₁. The gas expands by reducing pressure on the piston. To maintain constant temperature,
heat energy Q₁ is absorbed from the hot reservoir. The parameters change from (P₁, V₁, T₁) to (P₂, V₂, T₁).
Work is done by the gas.

32: Describe the adiabatic expansion step of a Carnot cycle.

Ans: In adiabatic expansion (step BC), the cylinder is placed on an insulating stand. The gas expands
further without any heat exchange (ΔQ = 0). The temperature decreases from T₁ to T₂, and parameters
change from (P₂, V₂, T₁) to (P₃, V₃, T₂). Work is done by the gas at the cost of its internal energy.

33: Why can the efficiency of a Carnot engine never be 100%?

Ans: The efficiency of a Carnot engine is η = 1 - T₂/T₁. For 100% efficiency (η = 1), we would need T₂ = 0 K
(absolute zero) or T₁ = ∞, both of which are physically impossible to achieve. The cold reservoir at 0 K
does not exist, and an infinite hot reservoir temperature is unattainable. Therefore, Carnot efficiency is
always less than 100%.

34: State Carnot's theorem.

Ans: Carnot's theorem consists of two parts:

1. No heat engine can be more efficient than a reversible engine working between the same two
temperatures.

2. All reversible engines have the same efficiency when working between the same two
temperatures.
35: What is a refrigerator? Explain its working principle.

Ans: A refrigerator is a device that maintains the temperature of a body below that of its surroundings.
It operates in a cyclic process reverse to that of a heat engine. It absorbs heat Q₂ from a cold reservoir
(inside the refrigerator) and gives off heat Q₁ to a hot reservoir (room) by using external work W done on
the system. Thus, Q₁ = Q₂ + W.

36: Define the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator.

Ans: The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator is defined as the ratio of the heat extracted
from the cold reservoir (Q₂) to the work input (W) required to transfer that heat. Mathematically: COP =
Q₂/W. For an ideal Carnot refrigerator, COP = T₂/(T₁ - T₂), where T₁ and T₂ are the temperatures of hot
and cold reservoirs respectively.

37: A Carnot refrigerator extracts 1 J of heat from a cold reservoir at 4 K and rejects it to a room at 293
K. Calculate the work required.

Ans: F: COP = T₂/(T₁ - T₂) and COP = Q₂/W ⇒ W = Q₂/COP S: T₂ = 4 K, T₁ = 293 K, Q₂ = 1 J C: COP = 4/(293 -
4) = 4/289 = 0.01384 W = 1/0.01384 = 72.25 J A: W = 72.3 J

38: Define entropy. Write its mathematical expression.

Ans: Entropy (S) is a thermodynamic state variable that describes the measurement of disorder of a
system. For a reversible process, when a system takes heat ΔQ at thermodynamic temperature T, the
change in entropy is given by: ΔS = ΔQ/T. The unit of entropy is J/K.

39: When is the change in entropy positive and when is it negative?

Ans: The change in entropy of a system is positive when heat is added to the system (ΔQ positive). The
change in entropy is negative when heat is removed from the system (ΔQ negative). For example, when
ice melts, heat is added, so entropy increases (positive ΔS).
40: Calculate the entropy change when 30 g of water at 0°C changes to ice at 0°C. (Latent heat of fusion
= 336 J/g)

Ans: F: ΔS = -Q/T (negative because heat is removed) S: m = 30 g, L = 336 J/g, T = 0°C = 273 K C: Q = m × L
= 30 × 336 = 10080 J ΔS = -10080/273 = -36.92 J/K A: ΔS = -36.9 J/K

41: Show that entropy remains constant in a reversible process.

Ans: For a system undergoing a complete reversible cycle, the total entropy change is zero. During a
Carnot cycle, heat Q₁ is absorbed at T₁ (entropy gain = Q₁/T₁) and heat Q₂ is rejected at T₂ (entropy loss =
Q₂/T₂). Since Q₁/T₁ = Q₂/T₂ for a reversible cycle, the net entropy change ΔS = Q₁/T₁ - Q₂/T₂ = 0. Thus,
entropy remains constant in a reversible process.

42: Explain why entropy increases in an irreversible process.

Ans: For an irreversible process, according to Carnot's theorem, the efficiency is less than that of a
reversible engine, so Q₂/T₂ > Q₁/T₁. Therefore, the net entropy change ΔS = Q₂/T₂ - Q₁/T₁ > 0. This shows
that entropy of a system increases in an irreversible process, indicating greater disorder and less
available energy for useful work.

43: State the law of increase of entropy.

Ans: The law of increase of entropy states that in any natural (irreversible) process, the entropy of the
universe either remains constant (for reversible processes) or increases (for irreversible processes). This
is another statement of the second law of thermodynamics: "in any natural process the entropy
increases and the available energy for doing work decreases."

44: What is meant by "heat death" of the universe?

Ans: Heat death is a theoretical concept where the entire universe reaches a state of maximum entropy.
According to the law of nature, hot places become cold and cold places become hot until temperatures
become equal everywhere. At this stage, no temperature difference exists for useful work, and all
available energy becomes unavailable. This state of maximum entropy is termed "heat death."
45: A gas is compressed to half its initial volume at constant pressure of 1.25×10⁵ Pa. If 100 J work is
done on the gas, find its final volume.

Ans: F: W = PΔV (work done by gas), but work on gas = -100 J S: P = 1.25×10⁵ Pa, V₂ = V₁/2, W_by = -100 J
C: -100 = 1.25×10⁵ × (V₁/2 - V₁) = 1.25×10⁵ × (-V₁/2) 100 = 1.25×10⁵ × (V₁/2) V₁ = (100 × 2)/(1.25×10⁵) =
200/125000 = 1.6×10⁻³ m³ V₂ = V₁/2 = 0.8×10⁻³ m³ A: V₂ = 8×10⁻⁴ m³

46: An ideal gas expands isobarically at 2.5 kPa from 2 m³ to 5 m³ with 13 kJ heat transfer. Find the
change in internal energy.

Ans: F: ΔU = ΔQ - W, W = PΔV S: P = 2500 Pa, V₁ = 2 m³, V₂ = 5 m³, ΔQ = 13 kJ = 13000 J C: ΔV = 5 - 2 = 3

m³ W = 2500 × 3 = 7500 J ΔU = 13000 - 7500 = 5500 J A: ΔU = 5.5 kJ

47: 2 kg of metal absorbs 86 kJ heat when its temperature rises from 15°C to 90°C. Calculate its specific
heat.

Ans: F: c = ΔQ/(mΔT) S: m = 2 kg, ΔQ = 86 kJ = 86000 J, ΔT = 90 - 15 = 75°C C: c = 86000/(2 × 75) =

86000/150 = 573.33 J/kg°C A: c = 573.3 J/kg°C

48: A Carnot engine working between 327°C and 27°C has claimed efficiency of 50%. Is this claim
correct?

Ans: F: η_max = 1 - T₂/T₁ S: T₁ = 327 + 273 = 600 K, T₂ = 27 + 273 = 300 K C: η_max = 1 - 300/600 = 1 - 0.5
= 0.5 = 50% A: The claim is theoretically correct as it equals Carnot efficiency, but practically
unattainable due to irreversibilities.

49: A heat engine with 30% efficiency has power output 6 kW and exhausts 8 kJ heat per cycle. Find
energy absorbed per cycle and cycle time.

Ans: F: η = W/Q₁, W = Q₁ - Q₂ S: η = 0.3, P = 6000 W, Q₂ = 8000 J C: 0.3 = W/Q₁ ⇒ W = 0.3Q₁ Also W = Q₁ -

8000 0.3Q₁ = Q₁ - 8000 ⇒ 8000 = 0.7Q₁ ⇒ Q₁ = 11428.6 J W = 0.3 × 11428.6 = 3428.6 J Time t = W/P =
3428.6/6000 = 0.571 s A: Q₁ = 11.43 kJ, t = 0.57 s
50: In a refrigerator, heat from inside at 277 K is transferred to room at 300 K. How much heat is
delivered to the room per joule of electrical energy consumed ideally?

Ans: F: COP = T₂/(T₁ - T₂) = Q₂/W, and Q₁ = Q₂ + W S: T₂ = 277 K, T₁ = 300 K, W = 1 J C: COP = 277/(300 -
277) = 277/23 = 12.04 Q₂ = COP × W = 12.04 × 1 = 12.04 J Q₁ = Q₂ + W = 12.04 + 1 = 13.04 J A: Q₁ = 13.04
J (approximately 13 J of heat delivered to the room)