Module I:

Introduction

Evolution, Features and Significance, Functions of

Government, Regulatory functions, Service providing
functions and Developmental Functions
 Meaning of Citizen-Centric Administration

• Citizen-centric administration refers to a system of public administration where

citizens are placed at the centre of governance. The government focuses on
people’s needs, expectations, participation, transparency, and service delivery,
rather than merely following rules and procedures.
• Government exists to serve citizens, not to control them.
• Citizen-centric administration is an approach where public services are designed
and delivered according to the needs, convenience, and welfare of citizens,
ensuring accountability, efficiency, and responsiveness.
 Evolution of Citizen-Centric
Administration
(a) Traditional Bureaucratic Administration
• Based on Max Weber’s model
• Emphasis on: Rules and regulations, Hierarchy, Authority
• Problems:
• Red tape
• Delay in service delivery
• Citizens treated as subjects, not partners
• Example: Long queues and paperwork in government offices.
(b) Welfare State Model
• Emerged after World War II
• Government took responsibility for: Education, Health, Employment
• Focus on public welfare, but administration remained top-down
• Example: Public Distribution System (PDS), government hospitals.
(c) New Public Administration (1960s–70s)
• Focus on: Social equity, Justice, People’s needs
• Highlighted the importance of responsiveness and values
(d) New Public Management (1980s–90s)
• Introduced private sector techniques: Efficiency,
Performance measurement, Customer orientation
• Citizens viewed as customers
• Example: Online bill payments, service delivery
timelines.
(e) New Public Service & Good Governance
• Citizens seen as partners in governance
• Emphasis on: Participation, Transparency,
Accountability, Ethics
• Result: Emergence of citizen-centric administration
 Features of Citizen-Centric Administration

1. Citizen as the Focus

• Policies and services are designed according to citizens’ needs.
• Administration is people-oriented, not rule-oriented.
• Example: Online grievance portals like CPGRAMS
(Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System).
2. Transparency
• Citizens have access to government information.
• Reduces corruption and misuse of power.
• Example: Right to Information Act, 2005
3. Accountability
• Officials are answerable for their actions.
• Performance is monitored.
• Example: Service delivery time limits under Right to
Public Services Acts in states.
4. Participation of Citizens
• Citizens take part in:
• Policy formulation
• Decision-making
• Implementation
• Example: Gram Sabha meetings under Panchayati Raj.
5. Responsiveness
• Quick response to citizen complaints and needs.
• Reduced delays and red tape.
• Example: Online complaint systems in municipal corporations.
6. Use of Technology (E-Governance)
• Digital platforms improve access and efficiency.
• Saves time and cost.
• Example: DigiLocker, Online Passport Seva
7. Equity and Inclusiveness
• Focus on marginalized and weaker sections.
• No discrimination in service delivery.
• Example: Welfare schemes for SCs, STs, women, and senior
citizens.
 Significance of Citizen-Centric
Administration
1. Improves Quality of Governance: Quality of governance refers to how effectively and
efficiently government policies are implemented.
• Citizen-centric administration improves governance by: Making services need-based,
Reducing bureaucratic hurdles, Focusing on outcomes instead of procedures
• When citizens’ needs are prioritized: Services become faster, Errors reduce, Satisfaction
increases
• Good governance is not about how many rules exist, but how well citizens are served.
• Examples: Mission Mode Projects under Digital India, Swachh Bharat Mission,
Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT)
2. Enhances Public Trust: Public trust is the confidence citizens have in
government institutions.
• Citizen-centric administration builds trust through: Transparency, Accountability,
Predictability of services
• When people know: What decision is taken, Why it is taken, How long it will take
• They feel respected and valued, not ignored.
• Examples: Online Tracking of Applications (Passport, PAN, Aadhaar updates,
Railway ticket booking status); RTI Act, 2005 (Citizens can ask questions directly
to authorities. Increased accountability of officials); Public Dashboards (PM Gati
Shakti portal, COVID-19 vaccination dashboard (CoWIN))
• Impact: Reduces suspicion, Improves citizen–state relationship, Strengthens
legitimacy of the government
3. Reduces Corruption: Corruption often occurs due to Excessive human interaction, Discretionary powers,
Lack of transparency,
• Citizen-centric administration reduces corruption by: Digitization, Rule-based systems, Automation
• When services are online: Middlemen disappear, Bribery opportunities reduce, Records become traceable
• Examples
• Online Land Records (Bhoomi – Karnataka)
• Farmers can access land records without paying bribes
• E-Tendering in Government Contracts
• Transparent bidding process
• Reduced favoritism
• Income Tax E-Filing
• No physical visits
• Faceless assessment system
• “Less discretion + more technology = less corruption.”
4. Strengthens Democracy: Democracy is not only about elections; it is about continuous participation.
• Citizen-centric administration: Encourages public participation, Makes governance participatory, Gives people a
voice beyond voting
• People feel: Heard, Involved, Responsible for governance
• Examples
• MyGov Platform
• Citizens give suggestions on policies
• Example: National Education Policy consultation
• Gram Sabhas under Panchayati Raj
• Local participation in decision-making
• Social audit of schemes like MGNREGA
• Social Media Engagement
• Ministries responding on X (Twitter)
• Direct communication with citizens
• Democratic Impact: Deepens democratic culture, Reduces alienation, Promotes active citizenship
5. Ensures Social Justice Social justice means fair distribution of resources and opportunities, especially to:
Poor, Women, SC/ST, Minorities, Disabled
• Citizen-centric administration focuses on: Inclusion, Targeted delivery, Equity
• Policies are designed by keeping the weakest citizen in mind.
• Examples
• Aspirational Districts Programme
• Focus on backward districts
• Health, education, nutrition indicators
• PM Jan Dhan Yojana
• Financial inclusion of the poor
• Linked with DBT and insurance schemes
• Accessible India Campaign
• Facilities for persons with disabilities
• Key Outcome: Benefits reach the real beneficiaries, Reduces inequality, Promotes fairness in governance
6. Improves Administrative Efficiency: Administrative efficiency means: Doing work faster, Using fewer resources,
Achieving better results
• Citizen-centric administration improves efficiency by: Time-bound service delivery, Performance evaluation, Use of
technology
• Examples
• Right to Public Services Acts (State level)
• Fixed time for issuing certificates
• Penalty for delay
• Mission Karmayogi
• Capacity building of civil servants
• Focus on outcome-based performance
• Single Window Clearance Systems
• For businesses and startups
• Reduces delays and red tape
• Impact: Faster decision-making, Better work culture, Increased productivity
• Citizen-Centric Administration is the backbone of good governance in a
democratic welfare state like India.
• Improves governance quality
• Builds trust
• Reduces corruption
• Strengthens democracy
• Promotes social justice
• Enhances efficiency
• “A government is successful not when files move fast, but when citizens’
lives improve.”
 Functions of Government

• Functions of government refer to the activities and

responsibilities performed by the State to maintain
order, ensure welfare, regulate society and promote
development.
Major Functions of Government
(a) Self-Preservation (Protection of the State): Self-preservation means protecting the sovereignty,
unity and integrity of the State from external and internal threats.
How government performs this function:
• Maintaining armed forces (Army, Navy, Air Force)
• Maintaining police and paramilitary forces
• Enacting laws related to national security
• Examples (India): Indian Army guarding borders against external aggression, Police and Central
Armed Police Forces (CRPF, BSF), Laws such as Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)
• Importance:
• Ensures survival of the State
• Maintains law and order
• Protects citizens’ lives and property
(b) Supervision and Resolution of Conflicts: Government plays a key role in preventing,
managing and resolving conflicts in society.
• Methods adopted by government:
• Strengthening democratic institutions
• Ensuring equality and justice
• Establishing conflict-resolution mechanisms
• Examples: Courts and tribunals for legal disputes, Election Commission for fair elections,
National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), Lok Adalats for speedy justice
• Importance:
• Promotes social harmony
• Strengthens democracy
• Prevents violence and unrest
(c) Socio-Economic Development: Government works to improve the social and
economic conditions of people, especially the weaker sections.
• Key activities:
• Enacting welfare laws
• Reducing poverty and inequality
• Promoting education, health and social justice
• Examples: MGNREGA – employment guarantee, Right to Education Act, Mid-
Day Meal Scheme, Welfare schemes for SCs, STs, women and minorities
• Importance:
• Inclusive growth
• Reduction of social inequalities
• Improvement in quality of life
(d) Regulation of the Economy: Government regulates economic activities to ensure
stability, growth and fairness.
• Main tools:
• Fiscal policy (taxation and public expenditure)
• Monetary policy (controlled by RBI)
• Regulation of markets and industries
• Examples: Union Budget, GST Council, RBI controlling inflation through interest
rates, SEBI regulating stock markets
• Importance:
• Prevents economic crises
• Controls inflation and unemployment
• Promotes balanced economic growth
(e) Provision of Goods and Services: Government provides essential goods and services which
private sector may not provide adequately.
• Types of services:
• Education
• Health care
• Food security
• Public transport and infrastructure
• Examples: Government schools and colleges, AIIMS and government hospitals, Public Distribution
System (PDS), Drinking water and sanitation facilities
• Importance:
• Ensures basic needs of citizens
• Promotes social justice
• Reduces regional and social disparities
Constitutional Basis of Government Functions (India)
• The Constitution of India clearly defines the functions of
government at three levels:
• Union Government
• State Government
• Local Government
• This decentralised structure ensures that governance is
closer, accessible and responsive to citizens, which is the
core idea of citizen-centric administration.
Relevant Constitutional Provisions:
1. Part III – Fundamental Rights (Rights-Based Citizen-Centric Administration)
• Role: Part III guarantees basic rights that protect citizens against arbitrary State action and ensure dignity and
equality.
• Key Rights relevant to citizen-centric governance:
• Right to Equality (Article 14) – equal treatment in public services
• Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21) – includes right to health, education, clean environment
• Freedom of Speech (Article 19) – enables citizen participation and feedback
• Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32) – citizens can approach courts against maladministration
• Citizen-centric significance:
• Administration must be fair, transparent and accountable
• Citizens are treated as rights-holders, not beneficiaries
• Encourages responsive and humane governance
• Example: Right to Information (derived from Article 19) empowers citizens to demand transparency.
2. Part IV – Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs) (Welfare-Oriented Citizen-Centric
Administration)
• Role: DPSPs guide the State to promote social and economic justice and improve citizens’ quality of life.
• Important DPSPs supporting citizen-centric governance:
• Article 38 – Social welfare and reduction of inequalities
• Article 39 – Livelihood, equal pay, protection of children
• Article 41 – Right to work, education and public assistance
• Article 47 – Duty of the State to improve nutrition and public health
• Citizen-centric significance:
• Shifts administration from rule-centric to welfare-centric
• Focuses on needs of vulnerable sections
• Promotes inclusive development
• Example: Schemes like MGNREGA, Mid-Day Meal Scheme, Public Distribution System are based on
DPSPs.
3. Parts IX & IX A – Panchayats and Municipalities (Participatory and Decentralised Citizen-Centric
Administration)
• Role: These parts provide constitutional status to local governments, bringing governance closer to
citizens.
• Key features:
• Elected local bodies
• Devolution of powers and functions
• Citizen participation in decision-making
• Citizen-centric significance:
• Enhances grassroots democracy
• Makes administration accessible and responsive
• Encourages community participation
• Example: Gram Sabha meetings, Local decision-making in water supply, sanitation, housing
• Impact: Citizens become active participants, not passive recipients of services.
4. Seventh Schedule – Union, State and Concurrent Lists (Efficient and Need-
Based Service Delivery)
• Role: The Seventh Schedule divides functions among different levels of
government based on nature and importance of services.
• Citizen-centric relevance:
• Prevents overlap and confusion
• Ensures efficient service delivery
• Allows decisions to be taken at the appropriate level
• Examples: Union List – Defence, Foreign Affairs (national interests), State List –
Police, Health, Agriculture (local needs), Concurrent List – Education, Forests
(shared responsibility)
• Result: Better coordination and responsiveness to citizens’ problems.
• The Constitution of India:
• Recognises citizens as rights-bearing individuals
• Promotes welfare, participation and decentralisation
• Ensures accountability and transparency
• Encourages inclusive and responsive governance
• Thus, the constitutional framework transforms
administration from a power-oriented system to a
citizen-oriented system.
• The functions of a government could be broadly categorized
as follows:
a. Regulatory functions
b. Service providing functions
c. Developmental functions.
• Regulatory Functions of Government
• Regulatory functions refer to the role of the government in
controlling, guiding, and restricting the activities of individuals
and groups in order to protect public interest, social order, and
collective welfare.
• The government does not allow unlimited freedom because one
person’s freedom can harm another person’s rights. Hence,
regulation becomes necessary.
Need for Regulation – Philosophical Basis
• Thomas Jefferson’s View
• Thomas Jefferson stated that government is created to protect inalienable rights
such as:
• Right to life
• Right to liberty
• Right to pursuit of happiness
• However, absolute freedom is dangerous:
• One person’s actions may harm others
• Public order may collapse
• Social conflicts may arise
• Therefore, regulation is essential to balance individual freedom and social interest.
• Role of the State
• To regulate society:
• The State enacts laws
• Creates institutions and agencies to enforce these laws
• Ensures optimum regulation (neither too strict nor too weak)
• Key Challenge: Achieving a balance between Individual liberty and
Society’s welfare
• Constitutional Basis of Regulatory Functions in India
Legislative Powers
The regulatory role of government in India flows from:
• Union, State and Concurrent Lists (Seventh Schedule)
• Powers of Parliament and State Legislatures
Article 19 – Reasonable Restrictions
Article 19 grants Fundamental Freedoms but also allows the State to impose reasonable
restrictions in the interest of:
• Public order
• Sovereignty and integrity of India
• Morality and decency
• General public interest
• Examples of Regulatory Laws
• Municipal laws and bye-laws
• Traffic and motor vehicle laws
• Arms Act (regulation of weapons)
• Public nuisance laws
• Taxation laws (Income Tax, GST, Property Tax)
• Immigration laws
• Example:
• Traffic rules restrict speed → protects life and safety
• Tax laws regulate income → fund public welfare
Problems in Regulation
• Over-Regulation
• Too many laws
• Complex procedures
• Excessive paperwork
• Harassment of citizens
• Example: Multiple licenses required to start a small business (before reforms)
• Under-Regulation
• Weak enforcement
• Poor supervision
• Public interest suffers
• Example: Poor enforcement of building bye-laws in Delhi led to illegal constructions and later
demolitions
Regulatory Functions of Local Bodies – ARC Recommendations
• The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) in its
report on Local Governance laid down five guiding principles for
regulation:
• Five Principles of Regulation
• Simplification – Easy procedures
• Transparency – Clear rules, no secrecy
• Objectivity – Reduced discretion
• Convergence – Coordination among agencies
• Speedy Disposal – Time-bound decisions
• Key Recommendation
• Mandatory simplification of regulatory provisions
• Creation of State-level Task Forces
• Reduction of discretion in field offices
• Municipal Corporations to undertake self-reform
• Example: Online birth/death certificates and building approvals by ULBs
Principles for Effective Regulation
(a) Regulation Only Where Necessary
India is often considered over-regulated, but implementation is weak.
• Causes:
• Too many regulations
• Outdated laws still in force
• Over-legislation
• Complex procedures
• Solution:
• Repeal unnecessary laws
• Update outdated regulations
• Simplify compliance procedures
• Example: Decriminalization of minor offences under labour and company laws
(b) Regulation Must Be Effective
• Problems:
• Poor enforcement of social laws
• Corruption due to weak monitoring
• Lack of capacity in enforcement agencies
• Example: Motor Vehicles Department unable to manage rapid increase in
vehicles
• ARC Recommendation:
• Strong internal supervision
• Periodic independent audits
• Capacity building of enforcement agencies
(c) Self-Regulation – Best Form of Regulation
Self-regulation promotes voluntary compliance.
Examples:
• Income Tax self-assessment
• GST returns
• Property tax self-declaration
Can be extended to:
• Building bye-laws
• Public health regulations
• Renewal of licenses
• Reduces corruption, Builds trust, Saves administrative cost
(d) Citizen-Friendly Regulatory Procedures
Regulations should be:
• Simple
• Transparent
• IT-enabled
• Time-bound
• ARC’s Ethics in Governance recommends:
• Use of digital platforms
• Reduction of discretion
• Online tracking of applications
Example: Online driving licence and passport services
(e) Involving Citizens and Professional Bodies
Regulatory burden can be shared by:
• Citizen groups
• NGOs
• Professional bodies
Example: Registered architects in Delhi certifying building plans,
Reduces delays and corruption, Improves efficiency
This model can be extended to:
• Environmental regulation
• Public health inspections
• Educational institutions
• Regulatory functions are essential for maintaining order, protecting
rights, and ensuring welfare. However:
• Excess regulation → harassment
• Weak regulation → public loss
• The goal of governance should be “optimum regulation” –
balanced, effective, transparent, and citizen-friendly.
 Service Providing Functions
• Service providing functions refer to the role of the government in delivering
essential services to citizens. These include:
• Social services: Education, Health
• Infrastructure services: Power, Roads, Transport, Water supply, Sanitation,
etc.
• The Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC), in its report on
Local Governance, examined service delivery, especially in health and
education, and made several important recommendations.
• Recommendations on Service Delivery (Health &
Education)
a. There is need for a shift in emphasis in the crucial service
delivery sectors of education and health from centralized
control to decentralized action, from accountability to the
State department to accountability to the local communities
and from employment guarantee to service guarantee.
b. It is necessary that all schools are made functionally self-suffi
cient, in as much as basic facilities and classroom
requirements are provided in all urban schools within the next
two years.
c. The municipalities, especially the larger ones, should seek the help of
NGOs, the corporate sector and individual volunteers for assistance in
running schools. Indeed, it would be useful to initiate a voluntary service
element in our social sector to improve service delivery.
d. The trend in urban areas to shift towards private healthcare needs to be
seen as an opportunity by the city authorities to concentrate on public health
as distinct from clinical services, and on preventive and not only curative
aspects of health care.
[Link] specific standards should be prescribed for schools and hospitals
and third-party assessments carried out to monitor performance in service
delivery. Performance based incentives should be prescribed at all levels by
braking salary ceilings to guarantee service outcomes and linking
permanence in service to performance.
f. Recruitment for hospitals and schools should be made to an
institution/society, moving away from non accountable State level
recruitment.
g. Local bodies should ensure convergence among health systems,
sanitation facilities and drinking water facilities. Primary level
public health institutions in urban areas should be managed by
the urban local bodies.
h. For all services provided by local governments there is need to
develop a set of performance indicators. The concerned Ministry
should lay down broad guidelines for this purpose. Therebefore,
the State Governments could lay down norms for this purpose.
i. The concerned Ministry should maintain a State-
wise database about the performance of various
service delivery systems. Similarly, the State
should have a database for such services covering
all municipal bodies.
• Infrastructure Services and Privatization
• Traditionally, infrastructure services were provided by government agencies.
• There is an increasing trend towards privatization to ensure:
• Efficiency
• Competition
• Accountability
• Example: Privatization of power distribution in Delhi
• Key Mechanisms for Accountability
• Full cost recovery
• Effective Citizens’ Charters
• Feedback mechanisms from citizens
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)
• Single Window System for Delivery of Services
• The Single Window System is an approach where citizens can access multiple
government services at one point, instead of visiting multiple offices.
• Approaches to Single Window System
• Single organization model
• One organization delivers all services through a single outlet.
• Common service infrastructure model
• An agency provides infrastructure through which multiple departments
deliver services.
• Collaborative model
• Departments work together without creating a separate agency.
• Role of ICT (Information and Communication Technology)
• ICT helps in faster, transparent, and efficient service delivery.
• Examples:
• USA: [Link]
• UK: [Link]
• India: [Link] (National Portal)
• Issues with Single Window Agencies in India
• Many agencies provide only ‘in-principle approvals’
• Citizens still need to approach multiple departments
• Therefore:
• Single Window Agencies need more empowerment
• Business Process Re-engineering is required
• ICT support is essential
• Recommendations of the 2nd ARC
• a. Regulatory Functions
• Government organizations should follow principles mentioned earlier
(para 3.2.4) while performing regulatory functions.
• b. Single Window Agencies
• All government agencies should introduce Single Window systems.
• Government should prepare a roadmap with timelines.
• A single window at the local level should be created for:
• Developmental services
• Regulatory services
• Efficient service delivery requires:
• Decentralization
• Community accountability
• Performance-based systems
• Use of ICT
• Single Window service delivery
• Active citizen participation
• These reforms aim to make governance citizen-centric,
transparent, and efficient.
 Developmental Functions of Government

• The developmental functions of government refer to those activities through

which the State works for the social and economic development of its citizens.
Modern governments are not limited to maintaining law and order; they actively
participate in improving the quality of life, reducing poverty, and promoting
inclusive growth.
• In a welfare state like India, the government plays a crucial role in ensuring social
justice, economic equality, and human development through various welfare and
development programmes.
• Welfare and Development Programmes of Government
The government implements a large number of welfare and development programmes
aimed at the socio-economic upliftment of people. These programmes focus especially
on poor, vulnerable, and weaker sections of society.
Major Areas Covered by Development Programmes
• Poverty Alleviation
• Programmes aimed at reducing poverty and improving living standards.
• Example: National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), Antyodaya Anna Yojana
• Employment Generation
• Programmes to provide wage employment and livelihood security.
• Example: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA)
• Infrastructure Development
• Development of roads, housing, electricity, water supply, sanitation, etc.
• Example: Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, Jal Jeevan Mission
• Welfare of Weaker Sections
• Special schemes for:
• Scheduled Castes (SCs)
• Scheduled Tribes (STs)
• Women
• Children
• Elderly
• Persons with disabilities
• Example: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Scholarship schemes
• Health and Nutrition
• Improving health services and nutritional status.
• Example: National Health Mission, Poshan Abhiyaan
• Role of State and Local Governments
• Most welfare and development programmes are implemented by
State Governments.
• Local Governments (Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies) play a
key role in:
• Identifying beneficiaries
• Implementing schemes
• Monitoring outcomes
• Each programme has specific features, rules, and guidelines
which must be followed for effective implementation.
• Focus on NREGA (MGNREGA)
• The Commission, in its Second Report, examined the implementation of the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) in detail.
• Key Objectives of NREGA:
• Provide at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to rural households.
• Enhance livelihood security.
• Create durable community assets.
• The Commission made comprehensive recommendations to improve:
• Transparency
• Accountability
• Timely payment of wages
• Participation of local institutions
• Principle of Subsidiarity
• The Commission strongly recommended adopting the principle of subsidiarity in
implementing development programmes.
Meaning of Subsidiarity:
• Decisions and implementation should be carried out at the lowest possible level
of government that is capable of performing the task effectively.
• Higher levels of government should intervene only when necessary.
• Importance:
• Encourages local participation
• Improves efficiency
• Makes governance people-centric
• Strengthens local self-government
• Citizen Participation
The Commission emphasized that citizens must be involved at all stages of
developmental programmes:
• Planning Stage
• Identifying local needs and priorities
• Implementation Stage
• Assisting in execution and service delivery
• Monitoring Stage
• Ensuring transparency and preventing corruption
• Citizen involvement leads to better outcomes and greater public trust.
• Social Audit
• Social audit refers to a process where citizens examine and evaluate
government programmes.
• It ensures:
• Transparency
• Accountability
• Proper use of public funds
• The Commission recommended that social audits should be mandatory
for all developmental programmes.
• Example: Social audits under MGNREGA conducted by Gram Sabhas.
• Impact Assessment
• Impact assessment evaluates whether a programme has
achieved its intended goals.
• It helps in:
• Identifying strengths and weaknesses
• Improving policy design
• Ensuring efficient use of resources
• The Commission suggested that periodic impact
assessment should be conducted for all programmes.
• Recommendations of the 2ND ARC: The Commission made the following important recommendations:
(a) Adoption of Subsidiarity
• The principle of subsidiarity should guide the selection of implementation machinery for all programmes.
• Local bodies should be empowered wherever possible.
(b) Active Citizen Involvement
• Citizens should be involved in:
• Planning
• Implementation
• Monitoring
(c) Mandatory Social Audit
• Social audit must be compulsory for all developmental programmes.
• It should be institutionalized and citizen-led.
(d) Periodic Impact Assessment
• Regular evaluation of programmes should be carried out.
• Findings should be used for policy improvement.
• The developmental functions of government are central to the idea of a welfare
state. Effective implementation of welfare programmes requires:
• Decentralization
• Active citizen participation
• Transparency through social audits
• Continuous evaluation through impact assessments
• By following these principles, the government can ensure inclusive, accountable,
and sustainable development.