CHAPTER 1
Units for Mechanical Engineering
1.1 Dimensions and Units
A dimension is a measure of a physical variable (without numerical values).
Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions (such as length,
mass, time, temperature, etc.). There are two types of dimensions: 1) basic
(or primary or fundamental), and 2) secondary (or derived). Primary
dimensions are defined as independent dimensions, from which all other
dimensions can be obtained. There are four primary or fundamental
dimensions that are very important for mechanical engineering students:
length ‘L’, mass ‘m’, time ‘t’, and temperature ‘T’. Secondary dimensions are
obtained/derived from fundamental dimensions, which is why secondary
dimensions are also called derived dimensions, such as volume ‘V’ (length 3),
acceleration ‘a’ (velocity/time = length/time 2), force ‘F’ (mass × acceleration
= mass × length/time2), energy ‘E’ (force × length = mass × length2/time2),
power ‘P’ (energy/time = mass × length2/time3), and pressure ‘P’ (force/area
= mass × length-1/time2) are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions.
There are an infinite number of possible secondary dimensions. The
magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
1.2 Systems of Units
Previously, there were three systems of units: CGS (centimeter-gram-
second), MKS (meter- kilogram-second), and FPS (foot-pound-second, where
a pound is a mass unit). Nowadays, two sets of units are commonly used in
the scientific and engineering community: 1) the international system of
units (SI), and 2) the United States Customary System (USCS). USCS was
developed from the English system of units. Most nations use SI as their
official unit system, except for a few (including the USA). The SI unit system
was developed by extending the MKS unit system. In the SI system, the unit
of length is ‘m’, the unit of mass is ‘kg’, and the time unit is ‘s’. There are
still common units that are used in the field of mechanical engineering, e.g.,
dynamic viscosity in centipoise (cP), kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt),
and heat energy in calorie (cal), all of which are CGS units.
1.3 Unit Conversion
Unit conversion is very important in engineering studies. One miscalculation
of units by civil engineers can damage a bridge or building, whereas an error
made by mechanical engineers can destroy an engine or machinery. Using a
conversion table is fine, but students must also check for possible mistakes
(using common sense) and their remedies by using step-by-step unit
conversion knowledge. They must also understand the proper units of basic
and derived dimensions. In the following sections, units and their
conversions will be discussed in detail. To better understand unit conversion,
consult the following derived dimensions and units (in both unit systems) as
well as the definitions of various dimensions:
Area: length2 = m2 or ft2
Volume: length3 = m3 or ft3
Velocity: distance per unit time i. e., length/time = m/s or ft/s
Acceleration: rate of change in velocity i. e., velocity change/time = (m/s)/s
= m/s2 or ft/s2
Force: mass × acceleration = kg × m/s2 = Newton (N) or lbm × ft/s2 =
poundal (obsolete)
Poundal is not a frequently used unit. The common English unit of force is
lbf, and
1 lbf = 32.2 poundal (more exactly 32.174 poundal, based on standard
gravity). This book will use the standard gravity as (g = 32.2 ft/s 2)
Weight: mass × gravitational acceleration = kg × m/s 2 = Newton (N) or lb m
× ft/s2 = poundal
Energy or work: force × distance = N × m = J in SI unit or lb f × ft in English
unit; this is also written ft × lbf
Power: work per unit time = J/s = W in SI unit or ft × lb f/s in English unit, the
common power unit in the English system is ‘hp’, and 1 hp = 550 ft × lb f/s. 1
hp = 746 W as well
Pressure: force per unit area = N/m2 = Pa in SI unit or lbf/ft2 in English unit,
the common pressure unit in the English system is lb f/in2, which is called ‘psi’
Torque: force × distance = N.m (J is not used to express torque to avoid
confusion from energy or work) in SI unit or [Link] f in English unit.
Density: mass per unit volume = kg/m3 or lbm/ft3
Temperature: Kelvin (K) in SI unit or Fahrenheit (˚F) in English unit. Celsius
(˚C) is also frequently used in the SI unit system.
The following fundamental relations (approximate) are very important:
1 m = 3.281 ft
1 lbm = 453.6 g
1 kg = 2.205 lbm (more exactly 2.2046 lbm)
1 cal = 4.185 J = 4.2 J (approx.)
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.013 bar (approx.) = 101.325 kPa = 14.7 psi = 760
mm Hg
1 bar = 105 Pa.
Unconventional Units:
British imperial length units: yard (yd), foot (ft), and inch (in).
A unit that is larger than a yard is a mile (mi).
1 mi = 1,760 yd
1 yd = 3 ft
1 ft = 12 in
British imperial mass units: grain (gr), ounce (oz), pound (lb m), slug.
1 lbm = 16 oz
1 slug = 32.2 lbm
A ton is larger than a slug.
There are three types of tons: short, long, and metric.
1 short ton = 2,000 lbm
1 long ton = 2,240 lbm, and
1 metric ton = 1,000 kg
A metric ton is also called a tonne.
British imperial volume units: Gallon, barrel
A fluid barrel or oil barrel is larger than a gallon.
1 oil barrel = 35 imperial gallons = 42 US gallons = 159 L
1 imperial gallon = 4.54 L
1 US gallon = 3.78 L.
Absolute and gravitational units of force: The absolute force unit in the SI
system is N;
1 N = 1 kg × 1 m/s2.
The gravitational unit of force in the SI/MKS system is kg f, and 1 kgf = 1 kg ×
(g = 9.81) m/s2 = 9.81 N.
The gravitational unit of force in the English system is lb f, and 1 lbf = 1 lbm ×
(g = 32.2) ft/s2 = 32.2 lbm × ft/s2 = 32.2 poundal.
Temperature: Two commonly used scales for measuring the temperature of
a body are:
1) Celsius scale and 2) Fahrenheit scale.
On the Celsius scale, at 1 atmospheric pressure water freezing temperature
and boiling temperature are assigned 0˚ and 100˚, respectively. However, on
the Fahrenheit scale, they are assigned 32˚ and 212˚, respectively.
Therefore, the difference ΔT, (100 – 0) on the Celsius scale is equivalent to
the difference ΔT, (212 – 32) on the Fahrenheit scale; or, 100 ΔT on the
Celsius scale = 180 ΔT on the Fahrenheit scale. Therefore, 1˚ difference (ΔT)
on the Celsius scale = 1.8˚ difference (ΔT) on the Fahrenheit scale. This
means that in order to get ΔT on the Fahrenheit scale, multiply ΔT obtained
on the Celsius scale by 1.8.
Now, let’s consider any specific temperature ‘C’ (e.g., room temperature) on
the Celsius scale and its corresponding temperature ‘F’ on the Fahrenheit
scale.
Therefore, ΔT from the freezing point to room temperature on the Celsius
scale is (C – 0) = C.
And ΔT from the freezing point to room temperature on the Fahrenheit scale
is = 1.8 × C.
Therefore, the specific temperature (room temperature in this case) on the
Fahrenheit scale,
F = 32 + 1.8 C because the freezing point in the Fahrenheit scale starts at
32.
Let’s take an example of the room temperature of 20˚C from the above
thermometer reading on the Celsius scale. The room temperature on the
Fahrenheit scale = 32 + (1.8 ×20) = 68˚F.
Two important relationships to determine the difference in temperature or
specific temperature on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are:
For the difference in temperature: ΔT in ˚C = 1.8 ΔT in ˚F, and
For specific temperature: F = 32 + 1.8 C; another form of this equation
frequently used is: C/5 = (F – 32)/9.
Absolute temperature: The absolute temperature on the Celsius scale is, K
= ˚C + 273, and the absolute temperature on the Fahrenheit scale is,
Rankine (R) = ˚F + 460.
ΔT in ˚C = ΔT in K,
ΔT in ˚F = ΔT in R.
To obtain ΔT on the Rankine scale, multiply ΔT obtained on the Kelvin scale
by 1.8. Remember, no degree symbol is used in K and R.
STP and NTP: In engineering problems, two conditions are frequently used:
1) STP and 2) NTP. STP stands for standard temperature and pressure, which
are 0˚C and 1 atm, respectively. NTP stands for normal temperature and
pressure, which are 20˚C and 1 atm, respectively.