Soil Sampling Techniques for Isolation of
Microorganisms
Overview
The approach to soil sampling depends on the reasons for soil analysis. Soil is not a homogeneous
mass. Plant life, topography, agronomic practices, etc. affect the uniformity of a soil. The
accuracy of the soil analysis data depends on the accuracy with which the soil samples are taken.
1. Judgment Sampling
Researchers, scientists, or farm managers may be called in when a crop shows a certain growing
pattern or when surface differences are observed for a soil. For example, differences may occur in
soil color which may be the result of many factors. The researcher judges the color differences:
e.g. he may judge a particular shade of color to be typical for a sample at certain sites. Then from
these sites, samples are drawn. The accuracy of these samples depends totally on the judgment of
the researcher - which may or may not be good.
Some persons, in order to include as many extremes as possible, commit the error of over
sampling. Probably less desirable is the person who takes the opposite approach, excluding the
extremes and ending up with a sample which is not representative. In either case, the judgment of
the sampler determines the accuracy of the results.
In certain situations, sample choices based on judgment are accurate enough. For example, if
small sites are involved and no estimate of accuracy is needed, judgment sampling might be
satisfactory. As the sample site becomes larger, and the selection of representative samples
becomes more difficult and time consuming, judgment sampling is inaccurate and other sampling
methods must be used.
2. Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is a more precise method of taking soil samples and is less biased by the
sampler than judgment sampling. Judgment sampling is used where soil or cropping differences
are noticeable and where the focus of the survey is only on one particular area of the field.
Random sampling is needed where the soil differences are not immediately noticeable by color,
texture, etc. and selection of representative samples becomes more difficult.
Simple random sampling could be used, for example, to take a soil sample in a small
experimental plot where high accuracy is needed. In this case, sampler bias must be eliminated as
much as possible for the sample to be representative of the entire plot.
Following are the steps needed to take a random soil sample:
Obtain a map or sketch of the area to be sampled
Decide upon a scale for the sketch: if it is a large field, you may decide that 1 cm equals
100 m; if a small field, 1 cm could equal 1 m. (Use any convenient unit of measurement
such as feet, paces, yards, etc. if preferred)
Select a corner of this map and draw two lines connected at one point at right angles to
each other (Figure 2). They do not need to be equal in length. Each will extend from the
point at which they meet to the farthest point at the edge of the field. The important thing
is to cover as much of the field as possible using two lines joined at one end. These lines
are usually called the "axes"
Using the map scale units you decided on, determine the length of the two axes.
(Example: one axes is 28 cm and the other is 45 cm, corresponding to 28 m and 45 m in
the field)
Number slips of paper from 1 to the highest number of units on either of the two axes
(Example: numbers 1 to 45). Place the numbers in a box and shake well
Draw any one number between 1 and 45 from the box at random without looking (for
example 27). Return the number to the box and draw a second number between 1 and 28
(for example 15)
Plot the point of the first number on its axes and the other number on the other axes.
These two points are called "coordinates"
Plot the point where the coordinates intersect in the field (Point A in Figure 2). This is the
approximate location where the sample will be taken
Draw two new axes parallel to the first, at right angles, starting from the point you just
marked (see enlarged insert in Figure 2)
Roughly measure the width of your sampling device. (Example: if you are using an
auger, the auger might have a diameter of 5 cm)
Divide the unit of measurement you decided on for the field by the diameter of the
sampling device. (Example: We chose 1 m, which is 100 cm; 100 cm/5 cm = 20
Put slips of paper numbered 1 to the number you just calculated into a box and shake.
(Example: papers numbered 1 to 20)
Draw two slips of paper. These are your new coordinates. (Example: 2 and 16)
Find the spot in the field that corresponds to the intersection of the coordinates (point S).
This is where you take your sample (Figure 2)
Using the field units chosen, measure out in the field what you have plotted on paper, and
take the sample with your sampling device.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
Farms or fields should be sampled according to soil areas. Different histories of crop management
require separate samples even on the same soil. Eroded areas or other poor yielding spots must be
sampled and evaluated separately. Samples have to be taken from each soil and crop sequence
(Figure 3).
When stratified random sampling is used, the population, i.e. a field or plot, is divided into sub-
populations (strata). For example, the strata may be a ridge, a slope, a low area or a level area. A
simple random sample is taken from each strata.
The scientist or researcher prefers this sampling method for two reasons:
to make a statement about the sub-population
to increase the accuracy of estimates over the entire population
Since the sampler selects stratified random sampling for its accuracy, stratification must eliminate
some variations caused by any sampling errors. In general, accuracy increases as stratification
becomes more well defined.
To estimate the sampling error of a stratum, sample at least two units. If the stratum is kept small
enough, a good estimate of error can be obtained.
One final point to keep in mind when applying this sampling technique is that the stratum is
sampled in proportion to the total. If it is 20% of the total, then the number of sampling units to
take from the stratum should be 20%.
Figure 3. Stratification of soils (Smith 1976, modified).
4. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is popular because it is accurate and relatively easy to use. Systematic
samples are taken from sites that are equidistant from each other, either in one or two dimensions,
forming a grid. Select the first unit at random. Take the following samples at uniform intervals.
Figure 4a consists of a grid formed when two sets of equidistant parallel lines are intersected at
right angles to each other. Figure 4b consists of equidistant, parallel lines, set at 60 degree angles.
Triangles are formed by drawing horizontal lines through the intersections.
Figure 4. Grid patterns for systematic sampling.
Although the systematic grid pattern usually allows more accurate sampling, under certain
conditions, it is inefficient. Madow (1944) found this to be the case when a fertility gradient
existed, either along the rows or columns of a field. For this reason, systematic designs cannot be
applied to fields having a slope or drainage problem without first considering the form of
population distribution.
The main problem of systematic sampling is how to estimate sample error. There are several
approaches:
Assume that the population was in random order before the systematic sample was
drawn. Estimate the sample error in the same way as the simple random sample
Block or stratify the sample, assuming that variations among units within a block are
sample variations. Estimate the sample error as with the stratified random sample
Take a number of separate, systematic samples, drawn at random from all possible
systematic samples of the same type. Calculate the mean and treat as a simple random
sample.
7. Sources of Error
In the process of gathering soil samples for use in laboratory investigation, errors can occur at
several stages:
sampling errors
selection errors
measurement errors
Sampling errors. Sampling errors cannot be eliminated entirely. Since sampling means to take a
part, errors can be reduced by careful selection.
Selection errors. Selection errors can occur when a sampler, eager to do a good job, over-
samples the borders of a field. Sampling in rocky areas can also cause error. The errors often
cancel each other. Otherwise the sampler may employ the two-step procedure of the simple
random sampling which is designed to eliminate selection errors.
Measurement errors. These types of errors arise in various circumstances:
When the measurement taken is not the true value of the unit. One example is the random
error. A random error takes place when cores of soil are mistakenly assigned constant
weights, even though they are variable.
As a result of variations in analytical techniques. Fortunately, random errors of
measurement tend to cancel each other as the sample size becomes larger.
Bias errors arise either because tare weights are ignored or because of an offset
calibration of the appropriate curve.
8. Sub-sampling and Composite Sampling
Subsampling. In many soil investigations, subsampling or multi-stage sampling is advantageous.
To subsample, first divide a sample unit into small portions. Then choose a second sample from
these portions and measure it according to the characteristics under consideration. This method of
sampling, frequently used when bulk density cores are taken, saves both time and money.
Composite sampling. When conducting laboratory analysis, using a composite sample instead of
individual samples saves time and money. To obtain composite samples, first take a number of
field samples of equal amount sufficient to represent the population. Then mix them to form one
composite. Laboratory analyses is done on this composite or a subsample of it.