■ HISTORY | GRADE 9
Chapter 4
Early Humans & Beginning of Civilisation
Complete Study Guide with Questions & Answers
Section Topics
Cultural development, Archaeological ages, Human ancestors, Palaeolithic, Mesolithic,
1. Notes
Neolithic, Harappan, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Chinese civilisations
2. Very Short Answers 1-mark questions on each topic
3. MCQs Tick the correct option — all topics
4. Fill in the Blanks Key facts to complete
5. Short Answers 3–5 mark detailed questions
SECTION 1 — CHAPTER NOTES
1.1 Cultural Development from 2 Million Years Ago
The story of early humans spans approximately 2 million years. During this vast period, humans gradually
developed culture — the shared practices, tools, beliefs, and ways of life that distinguish human societies.
Cultural evolution was slow and cumulative: each generation built upon the achievements of the previous one.
Key cultural milestones:
~2 million years ago First stone tools made by Homo habilis — the beginning of the Palaeolithic age.
~400,000 years ago Control of fire by early humans, enabling warmth, cooking, and protection.
~100,000–70,000 years ago Anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) in Africa; early symbolic thinking and art.
~40,000 years ago Cave paintings, carvings, and ornaments — fully developed human culture.
~10,000 years ago Beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals — Neolithic Revolution.
~5,000 years ago Rise of the first urban civilisations — cities, writing, and organised governments.
1.2 Periodisation — Archaeological Ages
Historians and archaeologists divide prehistoric human history into ages based on the materials used to make
tools. This is called the Three-Age System, proposed by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in the 19th century.
Age Time Period Tools/Material Key Feature
Stone Age (Palaeolithic) 2.5 million – 10,000 BCE Rough/Chipped stone Hunter-gatherer lifestyle
Stone Age (Mesolithic) 10,000 – 8,000 BCE Microlithic tools Transition to farming
Farming & animal
Stone Age (Neolithic) 8,000 – 3,000 BCE Polished stone
domestication
Chalcolithic 4,000 – 2,500 BCE Copper + stone First metal use
Bronze Age 3,000 – 1,200 BCE Bronze (Cu + Sn) First civilisations
Iron Age 1,200 BCE onwards Iron Advanced tools & warfare
1.3 Human Ancestors (Hominids)
The family tree of humans is called hominids. Scientists have identified several species that evolved over
millions of years, leading to modern Homo sapiens.
Species Time (approx.) Key Characteristics
Walked upright; small brain; ape-like features; lived in
Australopithecus 4–2 million years ago
Africa
First to make stone tools (Oldowan tools); larger
Homo habilis ("Handy Man") 2.4–1.4 million years ago
brain than Australopithecus
Homo erectus ("Upright 1.9 million – 110,000 years First to use fire; migrated out of Africa to Asia and
Man") ago Europe
Lived in Europe & western Asia; buried dead; cared
Homo neanderthalensis 400,000 – 40,000 years ago
for ill; became extinct
300,000 years ago – Modern humans; developed language, art, complex
Homo sapiens ("Wise Man")
present tools; only surviving hominid
1.4 Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age) — 2.5 million to 10,000 BCE
The word Palaeolithic comes from Greek: palaios (old) + lithos (stone). It is the longest period in human
prehistory, divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic.
Lifestyle:
• Humans were hunter-gatherers: men hunted animals, women gathered fruits, roots, and berries.
• They lived in small nomadic bands of 20–50 people, moving to follow food and water.
• Shelter was found in caves (rock shelters) or temporary huts made of animal skins and branches.
• Fire was discovered (~400,000 years ago) and used for warmth, cooking, and protection from predators.
• No agriculture or permanent settlements — they depended entirely on nature.
Stone Tools:
Tool Type Period Description
Simple pebble tools; earliest known stone tools made by
Oldowan tools Lower Palaeolithic
Homo habilis
Hand axes and cleavers made by Homo erectus; more
Acheulean tools Lower Palaeolithic
refined shape
Mousterian tools Middle Palaeolithic Made by Neanderthals; flake tools, scrapers, and points
Long, thin blades by Homo sapiens; used for cutting,
Blade tools Upper Palaeolithic
scraping, and hunting
Tiny blades set in handles; used as arrowheads and spear
Microliths Mesolithic
tips
Cave Art:
Upper Palaeolithic humans painted animals and hunting scenes on cave walls using natural pigments (ochre,
charcoal). Famous examples: Lascaux (France), Altamira (Spain), and Bhimbetka (India). These paintings
show abstract thinking and communication.
1.5 Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) — 10,000 to 8,000 BCE
The Mesolithic (Greek: mesos = middle) was a transitional period as the last Ice Age ended (~10,000 BCE).
Climatic changes caused shifts in the environment and human behaviour.
• Microlithic tools — tiny, precise stone blades (microliths) were crafted and attached to wooden or bone
handles to make composite tools like bows, arrows, and spears.
• Semi-sedentary life — humans began staying longer in one place, especially near rivers, lakes, and coasts
with abundant food.
• Beginning of domestication — dogs were the first animals domesticated (from wolves), used for hunting.
• Fishing and fowling became important alongside hunting and gathering.
• Transition period — this age bridged the gap between the purely nomadic Palaeolithic and the settled
Neolithic.
Key Fact: The Mesolithic in India is also called the Epipalaeolithic. Mesolithic sites in India include Baghor
(Madhya Pradesh) and Sarai Nahar Rai (Uttar Pradesh).
1.6 Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) — 8,000 to 3,000 BCE
The Neolithic Revolution (also called the Agricultural Revolution) was one of the most important turning
points in human history. For the first time, humans produced their own food instead of just collecting it.
Key Developments:
• Farming: Wheat, barley, rice, and millet were the first crops cultivated. This began independently in
different parts of the world — the Middle East ("Fertile Crescent"), China, India, and the Americas.
• Animal domestication: Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were domesticated for food, milk, and labour. This
led to pastoral communities.
• Polished stone tools: Tools were ground and polished to be sharper and more durable — axes, chisels,
sickles, and grinding stones.
• Permanent villages: People settled in one place near farmland. The first villages appeared around 9,000
BCE (e.g., Jericho in present-day Palestine — one of the world's oldest towns).
• Pottery: Clay pots were made to store grain and water, and to cook food.
• Weaving and cloth: Linen and wool were spun into threads and woven into fabric.
• Division of labour: Not everyone needed to farm — some could specialise as potters, weavers, or traders.
• Wheel: The wheel was invented (~3,500 BCE), revolutionising transport and pottery-making.
Neolithic sites in India: Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan — earliest in the subcontinent, ~7,000 BCE),
Burzahom (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar), and Inamgaon (Maharashtra).
1.7 Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation (~3,000 – 1,500 BCE)
The Harappan Civilisation (also called the Indus Valley Civilisation) was one of the world's earliest urban
civilisations, flourishing in the Indus River basin (present-day Pakistan and northwestern India). It is named after
the first site excavated — Harappa (in Punjab, Pakistan), discovered in 1921.
Important Sites:
Site Location Key Feature
Harappa Punjab, Pakistan First discovered; granaries, citadel, workers' quarters
Mohenjo-Daro Sindh, Pakistan "Mound of the Dead"; Great Bath, Great Granary
Dholavira Gujarat, India Water management; unique signboard with script
Lothal Gujarat, India Dockyard; evidence of sea trade
Kalibangan Rajasthan, India Fire altars; ploughed field
Rakhigarhi Haryana, India Largest Harappan site in India
Main Features:
• Town planning: Cities were laid out on a grid pattern with straight streets crossing at right angles. Buildings
were made of kiln-baked bricks of standardised sizes.
• The Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro): A large public bathing tank, possibly used for ritual purification. It was
watertight, with brick floors and bitumen lining.
• Drainage system: Every house had drains connected to covered street drains — the most sophisticated
sanitation system of the ancient world.
• Two-part cities: A raised citadel (upper town for public buildings and rulers) and a lower town (residential
area for the common people).
• Trade: The Harappans traded with Mesopotamia (Sumer), importing goods like gold, silver, and lapis lazuli.
Lothal had a dockyard for sea trade.
• Weights and measures: Standardised weights and measures were used for trade across the civilisation.
• Script: The Harappans had their own writing system (~400 symbols), found on seals and pottery, but it has
not yet been deciphered.
• Seals: Thousands of square steatite (soapstone) seals with animal motifs and script — used for trade and
identification. The most famous shows a "unicorn" (one-horned bull).
• Agriculture: They grew wheat, barley, cotton, and peas. Cotton was first cultivated here — the Indus valley
is the world's earliest known source of cotton textiles.
• Decline (~1,900–1,500 BCE): Possible causes include climate change, drying of the Saraswati River,
floods, or Aryan migrations. The exact cause remains debated.
1.8 Contemporary Cultures
While the Harappan civilisation flourished (~3,000–1,500 BCE), several other great civilisations emerged in
different parts of the world. These are often called "river valley civilisations" because they all grew along major
rivers.
A. Mesopotamian Civilisation
Location: Between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern Iraq). Mesopotamia means "land between two
rivers" in Greek. It is often called the "Cradle of Civilisation" because it produced some of history's earliest
achievements.
Time Period ~3,500 – 539 BCE
Major Peoples Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians
Capital Cities Ur, Nippur, Babylon, Nineveh
Cuneiform — wedge-shaped symbols pressed into clay tablets; oldest known writing
Writing
system
Code of Hammurabi (Babylonian king) — one of the world's first written legal codes
Famous Law
(~1,750 BCE)
Architecture Ziggurats — massive stepped temple towers dedicated to gods
Mathematics Developed a base-60 number system (we still use 60 seconds/minutes, 360 degrees)
Religion Polytheistic (many gods); each city had its own patron deity
Agriculture Irrigation canals from rivers; cultivated barley, wheat, dates
Trade Active sea and land trade with the Indus Valley and Egypt
B. Egyptian Civilisation
Location: Along the Nile River in northeastern Africa. The ancient historian Herodotus called Egypt the "Gift of
the Nile" because the annual Nile floods deposited rich silt, making the surrounding land extraordinarily fertile.
Time Period ~3,100 – 30 BCE (over 3,000 years!)
Ruled by Pharaohs — divine kings believed to be gods on Earth (embodiment of
Government
Horus)
Hieroglyphics — picture-writing on papyrus, stone, and tombs; later deciphered using
Writing
the Rosetta Stone
Polytheistic; major gods include Ra (sun), Osiris (afterlife), Isis, Horus, Anubis;
Religion
believed in life after death
Built as royal tombs; the Great Pyramid of Giza (~2,560 BCE) is one of the Seven
Pyramids
Wonders of the Ancient World
Bodies were preserved through mummification for the afterlife; internal organs stored
Mummification
in canopic jars
Highly stratified: Pharaoh at top, then priests, nobles, scribes, craftsmen, farmers,
Society
and slaves
Advanced medicine, astronomy, and a 365-day calendar (basis of our modern
Science
calendar)
Agriculture Flood-season farming along the Nile; crops included wheat, barley, flax, and papyrus
Trade Traded gold, grain, papyrus with Mesopotamia, Nubia, and the Mediterranean world
C. Chinese Civilisation
Location: Along the Yellow River (Huang He) and later the Yangtze River in East Asia. China is one of the
world's oldest continuous civilisations.
Time Period ~2,100 BCE onwards (Xia Dynasty onwards)
Major Dynasties Xia (~2,100 BCE), Shang (~1,600 BCE), Zhou, Qin, Han
Oracle bone script — earliest Chinese writing, carved on bones and tortoise shells for
Writing
divination
Religion Ancestor worship; Taoism and Confucianism (developed later, ~500 BCE)
"Mandate of Heaven" — rulers had divine right to rule if they were just; used to justify
Government
dynastic changes
Inventions Silk (kept secret for 3,000 years!), paper, printing, gunpowder, compass, porcelain
Agriculture Rice cultivation in the south; millet and wheat in the north; irrigation canals
Built to protect from northern nomads; construction began under the Qin Dynasty
Great Wall
(~221 BCE)
Silk Road Famous trade route connecting China to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe
Art Bronze casting, jade carvings, calligraphy, and later terracotta warriors
SECTION 2 — VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (1 Mark Each)
Exam Tip: These answers should be 1–2 sentences. Focus on the key fact — no need for long explanations.
Q: What does 'Palaeolithic' mean?
A: Palaeolithic comes from Greek words palaios (old) and lithos (stone), meaning 'Old Stone Age'.
Q: Who were the earliest known tool-makers?
A: Homo habilis (meaning 'Handy Man') were the earliest known makers of stone tools, approximately 2.4
million years ago.
Q: What was the main food source during the Palaeolithic age?
A: Palaeolithic people were hunter-gatherers — they hunted wild animals and gathered fruits, roots, nuts, and
berries.
Q: What is the Neolithic Revolution?
A: The Neolithic Revolution refers to the shift from food gathering to food production — the beginning of
farming and animal domestication around 10,000–8,000 BCE.
Q: Name the first animal to be domesticated by humans.
A: The dog (domesticated from wolves) was the first animal domesticated, used for hunting and protection
during the Mesolithic period.
Q: What are microliths?
A: Microliths are tiny, sharp stone blades characteristic of the Mesolithic age. They were attached to wooden or
bone handles to make composite tools like arrows and spears.
Q: Where was the Harappan Civilisation located?
A: The Harappan (Indus Valley) Civilisation was located in the Indus River basin, covering present-day
Pakistan and northwestern India.
Q: What is cuneiform?
A: Cuneiform is the world's earliest writing system, developed by the Sumerians of Mesopotamia. It consists
of wedge-shaped symbols pressed into clay tablets.
Q: Why is Egypt called the 'Gift of the Nile'?
A: Egypt is called the 'Gift of the Nile' because annual Nile floods deposited rich silt on the banks, making the
land extremely fertile and enabling Egyptian civilisation to flourish.
Q: What was the 'Mandate of Heaven' in Chinese civilisation?
A: It was the Chinese belief that rulers had a divine right to rule granted by heaven — but only as long as they
governed justly. It was used to justify dynastic changes.
Q: What was the Great Bath?
A: The Great Bath was a large public bathing tank at Mohenjo-Daro in the Harappan Civilisation, possibly
used for ritual purification. It had a watertight brick floor lined with bitumen.
Q: Name two famous cave painting sites.
A: Lascaux (France) and Altamira (Spain) are famous Palaeolithic cave painting sites. In India, Bhimbetka
(Madhya Pradesh) is well known.
Q: What did Homo erectus discover?
A: Homo erectus is believed to have been the first human ancestor to control and use fire, approximately
400,000 years ago.
Q: Which Harappan city had a dockyard?
A: Lothal (in Gujarat, India) had a dockyard, showing that the Harappans engaged in sea trade.
Q: What was the Code of Hammurabi?
A: The Code of Hammurabi was one of the world's first written legal codes, created by Babylonian king
Hammurabi around 1,750 BCE in Mesopotamia.
SECTION 3 — TICK THE CORRECT OPTION (MCQs)
Note: The correct answer is marked with ✓. Study all options — wrong options are common distractors in
exams.
1. The Palaeolithic Age is also known as:
(a) Copper Age (b) New Stone Age (c) Old Stone Age ✓ (d) Bronze Age
2. Which hominid was the first to make stone tools?
(a) Homo sapiens (b) Homo habilis ✓ (c) Homo erectus (d) Neanderthals
3. The Mesolithic Age is characterised by:
(a) Polished stone tools (b) Bronze tools (c) Microlithic tools ✓ (d) Iron tools
4. Which of the following was NOT a feature of the Harappan Civilisation?
(a) Town planning (b) The Great Bath (c) Pyramids ✓ (d) Drainage system
5. Mesopotamia means:
(a) "Land of the Nile" (b) "Land between two rivers" ✓ (c) "Land of the Rising Sun" (d) "Land of Mountains"
6. The Harappan script has:
(a) Been fully deciphered (b) About 26 alphabets (c) Not been deciphered yet ✓ (d) Been translated into Hindi
7. Ziggurats were associated with which civilisation?
(a) Egyptian (b) Chinese (c) Harappan (d) Mesopotamian ✓
8. Which river was central to Egyptian civilisation?
(a) Indus (b) Yellow River (c) Nile ✓ (d) Tigris
9. The earliest Chinese writing was on:
(a) Paper (b) Papyrus (c) Oracle bones ✓ (d) Stone tablets
10. The Neolithic Revolution is associated with:
(a) Discovery of fire (b) Beginning of farming ✓ (c) Making microliths (d) Cave paintings
11. Which Harappan site is known for its dockyard?
(a) Harappa (b) Mohenjo-Daro (c) Kalibangan (d) Lothal ✓
12. Homo sapiens means:
(a) "Upright Man" (b) "Wise Man" ✓ (c) "Handy Man" (d) "Ancient Man"
13. The Great Pyramid of Giza was built as:
(a) A temple (b) A royal tomb ✓ (c) A granary (d) A palace
14. Silk was first produced in:
(a) India (b) Egypt (c) China ✓ (d) Mesopotamia
15. Which of the following civilisations developed a base-60 number system?
(a) Egyptian (b) Mesopotamian ✓ (c) Harappan (d) Chinese
16. The first crops cultivated by humans included:
(a) Rice and potatoes (b) Maize and tomatoes (c) Wheat and barley ✓ (d) Tea and coffee
17. Bhimbetka (famous for cave paintings) is located in:
(a) Rajasthan (b) Madhya Pradesh ✓ (c) Gujarat (d) Karnataka
18. The Harappan Civilisation declined around:
(a) 3,000 BCE (b) 2,500 BCE (c) 1,900–1,500 BCE ✓ (d) 500 BCE
SECTION 4 — FILL IN THE BLANKS
Tip: The answer column (green) shows the correct word/phrase to fill in each blank.
Statement (fill the blank) Answer
1. The word Palaeolithic comes from the Greek words meaning _____
old / palaios
and stone.
2. Homo habilis is also known as _____ Man. Handy
3. The first animal to be domesticated was the _____. dog
4. _____ is the world's oldest known writing system, used in
Cuneiform
Mesopotamia.
5. The Harappan Civilisation site of _____ had a great dockyard. Lothal
6. The Egyptian writing system is called _____. Hieroglyphics
7. The Great Bath is located at _____. Mohenjo-Daro
8. The Harappan script has _____ been deciphered. not yet
9. Egypt is often called the "Gift of the _____." Nile
10. Mesopotamia is located between the Tigris and _____ rivers. Euphrates
11. The Neolithic age saw the invention of _____ for storing grain. pottery
12. _____ is one of the world's first written legal codes, created in
Code of Hammurabi
Babylon.
13. The Chinese kept the secret of _____ production for 3,000 years. silk
14. Cave paintings at _____ in France are famous examples of
Lascaux
Palaeolithic art.
15. The Neolithic Revolution is also called the _____ Revolution. Agricultural
16. Homo erectus was the first to use and control _____. fire
17. Microliths are characteristic tools of the _____ age. Mesolithic
18. The stepped temple towers of Mesopotamia are called _____. Ziggurats
19. The Harappan Civilisation is also known as the _____ Valley
Indus
Civilisation.
20. The earliest known site of the Harappan Civilisation in India is
Mehrgarh
_____ (in Balochistan).
SECTION 5 — SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (3–5 Marks Each)
Exam Tip: Write 4–6 sentences per 3-mark answer. Use point form with brief explanations. For 5-mark
answers, include an introduction, 4–5 main points, and a conclusion.
Q: Describe the life of Palaeolithic people. (3 marks)
1. Palaeolithic people were hunter-gatherers who did not produce food but collected it from nature.
2. They lived in small nomadic bands of 20–50 people and moved constantly to follow animals and seasonal
plants.
3. They sheltered in natural caves or built temporary huts from animal skins and branches.
4. They made stone tools by chipping and flaking stones — used as hand axes, scrapers, and choppers for
cutting meat and digging.
5. The discovery of fire (~400,000 years ago) was a major achievement: it provided warmth, allowed cooking
(improving nutrition), and gave protection from predators.
6. Upper Palaeolithic humans also created cave paintings of animals and hunting scenes, showing the
development of symbolic thought and communication.
Q: Explain the importance of the Neolithic Revolution. (4 marks)
1. The Neolithic Revolution (~10,000–8,000 BCE) marked the shift from food gathering to food production,
making it one of history's greatest turning points.
2. Farming: Humans first cultivated wheat, barley, rice, and millet. This provided a reliable food supply and
ended dependence on the unpredictable availability of wild food.
3. Animal domestication: Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were domesticated for food, milk, wool, and labour,
further securing food supply.
4. Permanent settlements: Reliable food meant people no longer needed to move — the first villages
appeared, growing into towns.
5. Population growth: More food supported larger, denser populations.
6. Specialisation: Not everyone needed to farm — some became potters, weavers, or traders, creating the
division of labour that underlies complex societies.
7. Inventions: Pottery (for storage), the wheel (~3,500 BCE), and weaving emerged during the Neolithic
period.
8. In summary, the Neolithic Revolution laid the foundation for civilisation by enabling cities, writing, and
organised government.
Q: What were the main features of the Harappan Civilisation? (5 marks)
1. The Harappan Civilisation (~3,000–1,500 BCE) was one of the world's first urban civilisations, spread
across the Indus River basin.
2. Town planning: Cities were built on a grid pattern with straight streets crossing at right angles. Buildings
were of standardised kiln-baked bricks.
3. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro was a large, watertight public bathing tank, believed to be used for ritual
purification.
4. Advanced drainage: Every house had drains connected to covered street drains — the most sophisticated
sanitation of the ancient world.
5. Two-part city: A raised citadel (for public buildings) and a lower residential town.
6. Trade: The Harappans traded extensively — even with Mesopotamia — and used standardised weights
and measures. Lothal had a dockyard for sea trade.
7. Crafts: They made fine pottery, jewellery from gold and semi-precious stones, bronze tools, and cotton
textiles (the world's earliest known cotton use).
8. Script: They had a writing system of ~400 symbols found on seals, but it has not yet been deciphered.
9. The civilisation declined ~1,900–1,500 BCE, possibly due to climate change, river shifts, or invasions.
Q: Compare the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisations. (5 marks)
1. Both Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisations were great river valley civilisations that flourished around
the same time and made lasting contributions to world history.
2. Geography: Mesopotamia grew between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern Iraq); Egypt developed
along the Nile River in Africa.
3. Writing: Mesopotamia used cuneiform (wedge-shaped symbols on clay); Egypt used hieroglyphics
(picture symbols on papyrus and stone).
4. Government: Mesopotamia had city-states ruled by priest-kings, while Egypt was a unified kingdom under
the divine Pharaoh.
5. Religion: Both were polytheistic. Egypt emphasised the afterlife strongly, leading to mummification and
pyramid tombs. Mesopotamians built ziggurats as temple towers.
6. Law: Mesopotamia produced the Code of Hammurabi, one of history's first written legal codes. Egypt was
governed more by royal decrees.
7. Achievements: Mesopotamians invented the wheel, cuneiform, and the base-60 number system.
Egyptians built the Pyramids, invented a 365-day calendar, and made advances in medicine.
8. Despite their differences, both civilisations significantly influenced later cultures and laid the groundwork for
Western and Middle Eastern societies.
Q: Describe the development of human ancestors from Australopithecus to Homo sapiens. (4
marks)
1. The evolution of humans spanned millions of years, with gradual increases in brain size, tool use, and
social complexity.
2. Australopithecus (~4–2 million years ago) walked upright but had a small, ape-like brain. They lived in
Africa and were among the first hominids.
3. Homo habilis (~2.4–1.4 million years ago) had a larger brain and made the first stone tools (Oldowan),
earning the name 'Handy Man'.
4. Homo erectus (~1.9 million–110,000 years ago) was the first hominid to control fire and to migrate out of
Africa into Asia and Europe.
5. Homo neanderthalensis (~400,000–40,000 years ago) lived in Europe and western Asia. They buried
their dead and cared for the sick — signs of social behaviour.
6. Homo sapiens (~300,000 years ago–present) developed complex language, abstract art, and
sophisticated tools. They are the only surviving hominid species.
7. This progression shows the gradual development of intelligence, culture, and technology that defines
modern humanity.
Q: What are the characteristics of the Chinese civilisation? (3 marks)
1. Chinese civilisation (~2,100 BCE onwards) is one of the world's oldest continuous civilisations,
developing along the Yellow River (Huang He).
2. The earliest writing was oracle bone script — symbols carved on bones and tortoise shells for divination
during the Shang Dynasty.
3. The concept of the 'Mandate of Heaven' justified royal rule: kings had divine authority to rule, but could be
overthrown if they ruled unjustly.
4. China made remarkable inventions: silk (kept secret for 3,000 years), paper, printing, gunpowder, the
compass, and porcelain.
5. The Silk Road was a famous trade route connecting China to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.
6. The Great Wall was constructed to protect against northern nomadic invasions, beginning in earnest under
the Qin Dynasty (~221 BCE).
Q: What do cave paintings tell us about early human life? (3 marks)
1. Cave paintings are some of the earliest evidence of human creativity and abstract thinking.
2. They show that Palaeolithic humans were observant of the natural world — animals like bison, horses,
mammoths, and deer are depicted with remarkable detail.
3. The paintings at sites like Lascaux (France), Altamira (Spain), and Bhimbetka (India) date back
20,000–40,000 years.
4. They suggest that humans had religious or ritualistic beliefs — paintings may have been made for
hunting magic, to ensure success in the hunt.
5. Cave art also shows hand stencils, geometric patterns, and occasionally human figures, reflecting
developing self-awareness.
6. Overall, cave paintings demonstrate that even early humans possessed language, imagination, and the
ability to record and communicate ideas.
QUICK REVISION — KEY FACTS TO REMEMBER
Palaeolithic 2.5 million – 10,000 BCE | Hunter-gatherers | Chipped stone tools | Cave paintings
Mesolithic 10,000 – 8,000 BCE | Microliths | Transition period | Dog domesticated
Neolithic 8,000 – 3,000 BCE | Farming begins | Polished tools | Pottery | Permanent villages
Harappan 3,000 – 1,500 BCE | Grid cities | Great Bath | Undeciphered script | Lothal dockyard
Mesopotamian 3,500 – 539 BCE | Cuneiform writing | Ziggurats | Code of Hammurabi | Tigris-Euphrates
Egyptian 3,100 – 30 BCE | Hieroglyphics | Pharaohs | Pyramids | Nile River | Mummification
Chinese 2,100 BCE+ | Oracle bone script | Silk Road | Great Wall | Mandate of Heaven
Best of luck in your exam! Remember: understanding is better than memorisation. Revise this guide 2–3 times
before the test.