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Structured Programming
C
LECTURE NOTES

Prepared by

Prof. OPUNGA NICKSON

 STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. HEADER FILE- A header file is a file with extension .h which contains C function
declarations to be shared between several source files. A header file is used in a
program by including it with the use of the preprocessing directive #include, which
comes along with the compiler. #include<stdio.h>

2. EXPRESSION – These are statements that return a value. Expressions combine

variables and constants to create new values or logical conditions which are either true
or false e.g.
x + y, x <= y etc

3. KEYWORD - A keyword is a reserved word in C. Reserved words may not be used as

constants or variables or any other identifier names. Examples include auto, else, Long,
switch, typedef ,breaketc

4. IDENTIFIER - A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any

other userdefined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore
_ followed by zero or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9). C does not allow
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punctuation characters such as @, $, and o% within identifiers.
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5. COMMENT - These are non-executablepdf program statements meant to enhance
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program readability and maintenance- they document the program.
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6. FUNCTION - A function is a group of statements, enclosed within curly braces, which

together perform a task.

7. STATEMENT- Statements are expressions, assignments, function calls, or control flow

statements which make up C programs. Statements are terminated using a semicolon.

8. SOURCE CODE – Program instructions in their original form. C source code files have
an extension .c
2
9. OBJECT CODE – Code produced by a compiler from source code and exists in
machine readable language.

10. EXECUTABLE FILE – Refers to a file in a format that a computer can directly execute
and is created by a compiler.

11. STANDARD LIBRARY – Refers to a collection of precompiled functions/routines that a

program can use. The routines are stored in object format and contain descriptions of
functions to perform I/O, string manipulations, mathematics etc.

12. SIGNED INTEGER – This is an integer that can hold either positive or negative
numbers.

13. COMPILER – This is a program that translates source code into object code.

14. PREPROCESSOR COMMAND - The C preprocessor modifies a source file before

handing it over to the compiler for instance by including header files with #include as I
#include <stdio.h>

15. LINKER/Binder/Link Editor – This is a program that combines object modules to form
an executable program. The linker combines the object code, the start up code and the
code for library routines used in the program (all in machine language) into a single file-
the executable file.

16. OPERATOR - A symbol that represents a specific action. For example, a plus sign (+)
is an operator that represents addition. The basic mathematic operators are + addition,
- subtraction,* multiplication,/ division

17. OPERAND - Operands are the objects that are manipulated by operators in
expressions. For example, in the expression 5 + x, x and 5 are operands and + is an
operator. All expressions have at least one operand.

18. EXPRESSION – This is a statement that returns a value. For example, when you add
two numbers together or test to see whether one value is equal to another.

3
19. VARIABLE - A variable is a memory location whose value can change during program
execution. Variable declaration must have a type, which defines what values that
variable can hold.

20. Data type – The data type of a variable etc determines the size and layout of the
variable's memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the
set of operations that can be applied to the variable.

21. CONSTANT - a constant is a value that never

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22. WHITESPACE - A line containing only t whitespace, possibly with a comment, is known
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as a blank line, and a C [Link] ignores it.
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Whitespace is the term used w
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comments. Whitespace separates one part of a statement from another and enables the
compiler to identify where one element in a statement, such as int, ends and the next
element begins. Therefore, in the following statement:
int age;

There must be at least one whitespace character (usually a space) between int and age
for the compiler to be able to distinguish them. On the other hand, in the following
statement

4
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING

Programming means to convert problem solutions into instructions for the computer. It
also refers to the process of developing and implementing various sets of instructions to
enable a computer to do a certain task.

Structured programming(sometimes known as modular programming) is an approach to

writing programs that are easier to test, debug, modify and maintain by enforcing a
modular approach which breaks a large complex problem into sub-problems.

A programming language is a vocabulary and set of grammatical rules designed for

instructing a computer to perform specific tasks.

HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

First-Generation Programming Languages – Machine Language

A first-generation of programming languages includes machine-level programming

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languages. These languages were introduced [Link] 1940s and had the following
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Instructions were entered directly
•
w in binary format (1s and 0s) and therefore they
w
w Programmers had to design their code by hand then
were tedious and error prone.
transfer it to a computer using a punch card, punch tape or flicking switches.
• Instructions were executed directly by a computer's central processing unit (CPU)
i.e. they were executed very fast.
• Memory management was done manually.
• Programs were very difficult to edit and debug.
• Used to code simple programs only.

Second-Generation Programming Languages (2GL) – Low Level

Programming Languages/Assembly Languages

They were introduced to mitigate the error prone and excessively difficult nature of binary
programming.

5
 • Introduced in the 1950s
• Improved on first generation by providing human readable sourcecode which
must be compiled/assembled into machine code (binary instructions) before it
can be executed by a CPU
• Specific to platform architecture i.e. 2GL source code is not portableacross
processors or processing environments.
• Designed to support logical structure and debugging.

By using codes resembling English, programming becomes much easier. The use of these
mnemonic codes such as LDA for load and STA for store means the code is easier to
read and write. To convert an assembly code program into object code to run on a
computer requires an Assembler and each line of assembly can be replaced by the
equivalent one line of object (machine) code:
Assembly Code Machine Code

LDA A 000100110100
ADD #5 001000000101
STA A
-> Assembler -> 001100110100
JMP #3
010000000011

Such languages are sometimes still used for kernels and device drivers, i.e. the core of the
operating system and for specific machine parts. More often, such languages are used in
areas of intense processing, like graphics programming, when the code needs to be
optimized for performance.

Almost every CPU architecture has a companion assembly language. Most commonly
used are the assembly languages today like Autocoder for IBM mainframe systems,
Linoreum, MACRO -11,etc.

Third-Generation Languages (3GL) – High-Level Languages

Third generation languages are the primary languages used in general purpose
programming today. They each vary quite widely in terms of their particular abstractions
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and syntax. However, they all share great enhancements in logical structure over
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 • Introduced in the 1950s
• Designed around ease of use for the programmer (Programmer friendly)
• Driven by desire for reduction in bugs, increases in code reuse
• Based on natural language
• Often designed with structured programming in mind
• The languages are architecture independente.g. C, Java etc.

Examples:

Most Modern General Purpose Languages such as C, C++, C#, Java, Basic, COBOL, Lisp
and ML.

Fourth Generation Languages

Fourth-generation programming languages are high-level languages built around database

systems.
They are generally used in commercial environments.
• Improves on 3GL and their development methods with higher abstraction and
statement power, to reduce errors and increase development speed by reducing
programming effort. They result in a reduction in the cost of software development.
• A 4GL is designed with a specific purpose in mind. For example languages to
query databases (SQL), languages to make reports (Oracle Reports) etc.
• 4GL are more oriented towards problem solving and systems engineering.

Examples: Progress 4GL, PL/SQL, Oracle Reports, Revolution language, SAS,

SPSS, SQ

Fifth Generation Languages

Improves on the previous generations by skipping algorithm writing and instead provide
constraints/conditions.

While 4GL are designed to build specific programs, 5GL are designed to make the computer
solve a given problem without the programmer. The programmer only needs to worry about
what problems needed to be solved and only inputs a set of logical constraints, with

7
no specified algorithm, and the Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based compiler builds the
program based on these constraints

Examples: Prolog, OPS5, Mercury

Low-Level Languages VersusHigh-Level Languages

Low-level languages such as machine language and assembly language are closer to
the hardware than are the high-level programming languages, which are closer to human
languages. Low-level languages are converted to machine code without using a compiler
or interpreter, and the resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program written in a
low-level language runs very quickly, and with a very small memory footprint; an
equivalent program in a high-level language will be more heavyweight. Low-level
languages are simple, but are considered difficult to use, due to the numerous technical
details which must be remembered.

High-level languages are closer to human languages and further from machine
languages.

The main advantage of high-level languages over low-level languages is that they are
easier to read, write, and maintain. Ultimately, programs written in a high-level language
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must be translated into machine language by acocompiler or interpreter.
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The first high-level programming languages f no were designed in the 1950s. Now there are
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dozens of different languages, including
w Ada, Algol, BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, FORTRAN,
LISP, Pascal, and Prolog.
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PROGRAMMING PARADIGMS
A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming, a way of
building the structure and elements of computer programs. There are four main paradigms:

a) Unstructured Programming

8
In unstructured programs, the statements are executed in sequence (one after the other)
as written. This type of programming uses the GoTo statement which allows control to be
passed to any other section in the program. When a GoTo statement is executed, the
sequence continues from the target of the GoTo. Thus, to understand how a program
works, you have to execute it. This often makes it difficult to understand the logic of such a
program.

b) Structured Programming

The approach was developed as a solution to the challenges posed by

unstructured/procedural programming. Structured programming frequently employs a top-
down design model, in which developers break the overall program structure into
separate subsections. A defined function or set of similar functions is coded in a separate
module or sub-module, which means that code can be loaded into memory more
efficiently and that modules can be reused in other programs. After a module has
been tested individually, it is then integrated with other modules into the overall program
structure.
Program flow follows a simple hierarchical model that employs looping constructs such as
"for," "repeat," and "while." Use of the "GoTo" statement is discouraged.

Most programs will require thousands or millions of lines of code. (Windows 2000 – over
35 millions lines of code). The importance of splitting a problem into a series of self-
contained modules then becomes obvious. A module should not exceed 100 lines, and
preferably short enough to fit on a single page or screen.
Examples of structured programming languages include:
C
Pascal
Fortran
Cobol
ALGOL
AdadBASE
etc.

9
c) Object-oriented programming (OOP)
This is a programming paradigm that represents concepts as "objects" that have data
fields (attributes that describe the object) and associated procedures known as methods.
ke used to interact with one another to
Objects, which are usually instances of classes, .are
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d) Visual Programming w
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A visual programming language uses a visual representation (such as graphics, drawings,
animation or icons, partially or completely). A visual language manipulates visual
information or supports visual interaction, or allows programming with visual expressions

A VPL allows programming with visual expressions, spatial arrangements of text and
graphic symbols, used either as elements of syntax or secondary notation. For example,
many VPLs (known as dataflow or diagrammatic programming) are based on the idea of
"boxes and arrows", where boxes or other screen objects are treated as entities,
connected by arrows, lines or arcs which represent relations. An example of visual
programming languages is Microsoft Visual Basic which was derived from BASIC and
enables the rapid application development (RAD) of graphical user interface (GUI)
applications.
Programming in VB is a combination of visually arranging components or controls on a
form, specifying attributes and actions for those components, and writing additional lines of
code for more functionality.

e) Internet Based Programming

This is programming oriented to the development of internet applications using languages

and tools such as PHP, ASP, Perl, JavaScript, HTML, Java etc.

SOFTWARE CONSIDERATIONS

Before you can start programming in C, you will need text editor such as a plain text
Notepad Editor though it does not offer code completion or debugging. Many
programmers prefer and recommend using an Integrated Development Environment

10
(IDE) instead of a text editor on which to code, compile and test their programs. Memory
requirements
Disk space required

ADVANTAGES C LANGUAGE
1. Modularity: modularity is one of the important characteristics of C. we can split the C
program into no. of modules instead of repeating the same logic statements
(sequentially). It allows reusability of modules.
2. General purpose programming language: C can be used to implement any kind of
applications such as math’s oriented, graphics, business oriented applications.
3. Portability: we can compile or execute C program in any operating system (UNIX,
dos, windows).
4. Powerful and efficient programming language: C is very efficient and powerful
programming language; it is best used for data structures and designing system
software. Efficient in that it is a modular programming language and thus makes
efficient use of memory and system resources.

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PROGRAM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

Program/System design is the process of defining the software structure (components/

modules, interfaces, and data) to satisfy/realize specified requirements.
Program development refers to all the activities and processes involved between the
conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, in a
planned and structured process.

11
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT CYCLE
This refers to the stages that form the framework for planning and controlling the creation
of an information system. Several approaches to program development have been devised
and the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is one of the most popular. The SDLC is
a methodology that aims at producing a high quality system that meets or exceeds
customer expectations, reaches completion within
e times and cost estimates, works
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efficiently and is inexpensive to maintain and
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1) Project planning, feasibility study: The fundamental process of understanding
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why a system should be built
building it. It should also establish a clear understanding of the current system. It
involves
a. Technical feasibility study: can the system be built
b. Economic feasibility study: will the system provide business value, and what
are the risks?
c. Organizational feasibility study: if built, will it be used.
2) Systems analysis, requirements definition: the phase identifies the users of the
system, what the system will do. It involves
a. Analysis of the old system and ways to design the new system
b. Requirement gathering. Various tools for collecting information are used.
These include interviews, questionnaires, observation etc.
c. Development of the new system proposal document.
3) Systems design: describes how the system will operate, in terms of hardware,
software, network infrastructure, user interface, forms and reports that will be used,
the specific programs, databases and files that will be needed. Design phase steps
include;
a. Design strategy: method of development, in-house, outsourced, or
purchased
b. Architecture design – hardware , software, internet infrastructure, and user
interface [Link] and file specification
[Link] design: defines the program that needs to be done and exactly what
each will do.
4) System Implementation: The real code is written here.

12
 5) Integration and testing:Brings all the pieces of the project together into a special
testing environment, then checks for errors, bugs and interoperability.
6) Acceptance, installation, deployment: The final stage of initial development,
where the software is put into use and runs actual business.
7) Maintenance: What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes,
correction, additions, and moves to a different computing platforms etc. This step,
perhaps most important of all, goes on seemingly forever.
The SDLC is a cycle i.e. iterative in that a new requirement might initiate the whole
process again.

STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING DESIGN CONCEPTS

1. TOP-DOWN DESIGN
A top-down approach (also known as stepwise design or deductive reasoning, and in
many cases used as a synonym of analysis or decomposition) is essentially the breaking
down of a system to gain insight into its compositional sub-systems. In a top-down
approach an overview of the system is formulated, specifying but not detailing any first-
level subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many
additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. Top-
down approach starts with the big picture. It breaks down from there into smaller
segments.
Top-down design(also called " Modular programming " and "stepwise refinement")
therefore, is a software design technique that emphasizes separating the functionality of a
program into independent modules such that each module is designed to execute only one
aspect of the desired functionality.

ADVANTAGES OF MODULAR PROGRAMMING

Allows a problem to be split in stages and for a team of programmers to work on the
different modules thereby reducing program development time.
Program modification and debugging is easier since changes can be isolated to
specific modules.
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Modules can be tested and debugged independently.
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Since a module performs a specific andeswell
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and place commonly used modules
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 by different programs. This is also called code reuse. (E.g. Validation, Uppercase,
Text color etc.)
If a programmer cannot continue through the entire project, it is easier for another
programmer to continue working on self-contained modules.

2. BOTTOM-UP DESIGN
A bottom-up approach (also known as inductive reasoning, and in many cases used as a
synonym of synthesis) is the piecing together of systems to give rise to larger systems,
thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. In a bottom-up
approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail.
These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are
linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed.
With this approach, there is more user and business awareness of the product.
Benefits are also realized in the early phases of development.

3. MONOLITHIC DESIGN
The monolithic design philosophy is that the application is responsible not just for a
particular task, but can perform every step needed to complete a particular function
A monolithic application describes a software application which is designed without
modularity.

PROGRAM DESIGN TOOLS

1. Pseudo-code
Pseudo-code is an informal high-level description of the operating principle of a computer
program or other algorithm and is intended for human reading rather than machine
reading. Pseudo-code is a way to describe the algorithm in order to transform the
algorithm into real source code. For example, the Pseudo-code for comparing three
numbers might be written:

Begin
If A is greater than B
And if A is greater than C, A is the Biggest

14
Otherwise C is the Biggest
Otherwise
If B is greater than C B is the Biggest
Otherwise C is the Biggest
End

Pseudo-code cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are no real formatting or syntax
rules. It is simply one step - an important one - in producing the final code
2. Algorithm
This refers to an established, computational procedure for solving a problem in a finite
number of steps. Algorithms can be expressed in any language including natural
languages such as English. Algorithm means a method/ logic for solving a given problem.

An algorithm to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Declare variables a, b and c.
Step 3: Read variables a, b and c.
Step 4: If a>b
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If a>c co.
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Display a is the largest number. Elsete
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If b>c w
Display b is the largest number.
Else
Display c is the greatest number.
Step 5: Stop

3. Flowchart
A flowchart is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm or process, showing the
steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting them with arrows. This
diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution to a given problem. Flowcharts are used
in designing and documenting complex processes or programs. Like other types of
diagrams, they help to visualize what is going on and thereby help the viewer to
understand a process, and perhaps also find flaws/errors, bottlenecks, and other less-
obvious features within it.

15
 Symbol Purpose Description
Used for arithmetic operations and
Processing
datamanipulations.
Used to represent the operation in which there are
Decision
two alternatives, true and false.
Draw flowchart to find the largest among three different numbers entered by user.

On-page Connector Used to join different flow lines

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Used to sconnect flowchart portion on different
Off-page Connector t e
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pages.
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wUsed to add comments or clarification
Comment w
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Predefined Used to represent a group of statements
Process/Function performing one processing task.

SYMBOLS USED IN FLOWCHART

Different symbols are used for different states in flowcharts. The table below describes all
the symbols that are used in making flowchart
Symbol Purpose Description
Used to indicate the flow of logic by connecting
Flow line
symbols.

Terminal(Stop/Start) Used to represent start and end of flowchart.

Input/Output Used for input and output operation.

Or a flowchart to ask for a number from user and multiply with another number and print
result as follows:

16
Examples of flowcharts include Activity diagram, Data flow diagram and sequence
diagrams etc.

STRUCTURE CHARTS (module chart, hierarchy chart)

A structure chart is a top-down modular design tool, constructed of squares representing
the different modules in the system, and lines that connect them. A structure chart is a
graphic depiction of the decomposition of a problem. It is a tool to aid in software design
but is particularly helpful on large problems.

A structure chart illustrates the partitioning of a problem into sub-problems and shows the
hierarchical relationships among the parts. A classic "organization chart" for a
company is an example of a structure chart.

The top of the chart is a box representing the entire problem, the bottom of the chart
shows a number of boxes representing the less complicated sub-problems (e.g. Phone Bill
System).

A structure chart is NOT a flowchart. It has nothing to do with the logical sequence of
tasks. It does NOT show the order in which tasks are performed. It does NOT illustrate an
algorithm.

17
 Each block represents some function in the system, and thus should contain a verb phrase, e.g.
"Print report heading."
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Decision Tables
Decision tables provide a handy and compact way to represent complex business logic. In
a decision table, business logic is well divided into conditions, actions (decisions) and
rules for representing the various components that form the business logic.

There is one row for each condition and each vertical column for each combination of
values and resulting actions. Conditions are the factors to consider when making certain
business decision.
Actions are the possible actions to take when certain business decision is made.
Each vertical column of a decision table is called a rule and each rule symbolizes the
combinations of condition(s) and action(s) that form the business decision. If constructed
properly, the decision table has a rule to cover every combination. Rules are made of
selectors symbolized by Y (Yes), N (No) and – (for redundant or irrelevant rules).

COMPLETING THE TABLE

If the number of conditions identified is n, then the number of possible rules is found by
applying the formula; Number of rules = 2ni.e. 2 number of conditions
Entries opposite the lowest condition should be completed first using Y an N alternately
until all the vertical rules have been dealt with.

18
 Entries opposite the second lowest condition should be completed using Y an N in pairs
until all the vertical rules have been dealt with.
Entries for the next condition are then completed next using Ys and Ns in fours.
This process continues using twice the number of Ys and Ns each time until all conditions
are completed.
Once entered, the rules are read vertically in each column and an X entered at the action
that appropriately completes that rule. Actions which are mutually exclusive can be
combined on a single line.

EXAMPLE
A student who passes the examinations and completes the coursework and project
satisfactorily is awarded a pass. If the course worke and the project are unsatisfactory, the
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passed. A student who fails the examinations o is deemed to have failed the whole course
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unless both the course work and the project are satisfactory, in which case the student is
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allowed to re-sit the examination. ww

SOLUTION

Before an overall pass

Rules

Exams Passed? Y Y Y Y N N N N
Conditions Completed Course work? Y Y N Y Y N N
N
Completed Project? Y N Y N Y N Y N

Pass X

Re-sit Exam X

Actions Resubmit Coursework X X

Resubmit Project X X
Failed X X X

19
ASSIGNMENT 1
Candidates are accepted for employment if they pass the interview and their qualifications
and reference are satisfactory. If they pass the interview and the qualifications or
references (but not both) are unsatisfactory, a job for probationary period is offered. In all
other circumstances, the candidate’s application is rejected.

Assignment 2
• Design the business logic (at least three conditions) that is applicable when a customer
is applying for a bank loan.
• Draw a decision table to represent the business logic.

3. PROGRAM STRUCTURE

STRUCTURE OF A C PROGRAM
The C programming language was designed by Dennis Ritchie as a systems
programming language for Unix.

A C program basically has the following structure:

Preprocessor Commands
Functions
Variable declarations
Statements & Expressions
Comments

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
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/* My first program*/ o
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printf("Hello, World! \n");
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return 0; w
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}

20
Preprocessor Commands
These commands tell the compiler to do preprocessing before doing actual
compilation. Like #include <stdio.h> is a preprocessor command which tells a C compiler
to include stdio.h file before going to actual compilation. The standard input and output
header file (stdio.h) allows the program to interact with the screen, keyboard and file
system of the computer.

NB/ Preprocessor directives are not actually part of the C language, but rather instructions
from you to the compiler.

Functions
Theseare main building blocks of any C Program. Every C Program will have one or more
functions and there is one mandatory function which is called main() function. When this
function is prefixed with keyword int, it means this function returns an integer value when it
exits. This integer value is retuned using return statement.
The C Programming language provides a set of built-in functions. In the above example
printf() is a C built-in function which is used to print anything on the screen.
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. A C program can be
divide up into separate functions but logically the division usually is so each function
performs a specific task. A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name,
return type, and parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the function.
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows:

return_typefunction_name( parameter list )

{
body of the function/Function definition
}

Variable Declarations
In C, all variables must be declared before they are used. Thus, C is a strongly typed
programming language. Variable declaration ensures that appropriate memory space is

21
reserved for the variables. Variables are used to hold numbers, strings and complex data
for manipulation e.g. Int x;
Int num; int z;

Statements & Expressions

Expressions combine variables and constants to create new values e.g.
x + y;

Statements in C are expressions, assignments, function calls, or control flow

statements which make up C programs.
An assignment statement uses the assignment operator “=” to give a variable on the
operator’s left side the value to the operator’s right or the result of an expression on the
right.
z = x + y;
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Comments ot
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These are non-executable program statements meant to enhance program readability
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and allow easier program maintenance- they document the program. They are
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ignored by the compiler. Theseare used to give additional useful information inside a C
Program. All the comments will be put inside /*...*/ or // for single line comments as given
in the example above. A comment can span through multiple lines.

/* Author: MzeeMoja */

or

/*
* Author: MzeeMoja
* Purpose: To show a comment that spans multiple
lines.
* Language: C
*/

22
or
Fruit = apples + oranges; // get the total fruit

Escape Sequences
Escape sequences (also called back slash codes) are character combinations that begin
with a backslash symbol used to format output and represent difficult-to-type characters.

They include:
\a Alert/bell
\b Backspace
\n New line
\v Vertical tab
\t Horizontal tab
\\ Back slash
\’ Single quote
\” Double quote
\0 Null

Note the following

• C is a case sensitive programming language. It means in C printfand Printfwill

have different meanings.
• End of each C statement must be marked with a semicolon.
• Multiple statements can be on the same line.
• Any combination of spaces, tabs or newlines is called a white space. C is a free-
form language as the C compiler chooses to ignore whitespaces. Whitespaces are
allowed in any format to improve readability of the code. Whitespace is the term
used in C to describe blanks, tabs, newline characters and comments.
• Statements can continue over multiple lines.
• A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-
defined item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore _
followed by zero or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9). C does not allow
punctuation characters such as @, $, and %
e within identifiers.
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23
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 • A keyword is a reserved word in C. Reserved words may not be used as
constants or variables or any other identifier names

SAMPLE PROGRAM
//First program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int num; // Declaration

num =1; // Assignment statement printf(" My

favorite number is %d because", num); printf(" it is
first.\n"); return 0;
}
The program will output (print on screen) the statement “My favorite number is 1
because it is first”.
The %d instructs the computer where and in what form to print the value. %d is a type
specifier used to specify the output format for integer numbers.

Keywords
The following list shows the reserved words in C. These reserved words may not be used
as constants or variables or any other identifier names.

auto else Long switch

break enum register typedef
case extern return union
char float short unsigned
const for signed void
continue goto sizeof volatile
default if static while

24
do int struct _packed
double

SOURCE CODE FILES

When you write a program in C language, your instructions form the source code/file. C
files have an extension .c. The part of the name before the period is called the extension.

Object Code, Executable Code and Libraries

An executable file is a file containing ready to run machine code. C accomplishes this in
two steps.
Compiling –The compiler converts the source code to produce the intermediate object
code.
The linker combines the intermediate code with other code to produce the executable
file. You can compile individual modules and then combine modules later.

Linking is the process where the object code, the start up code and the code for library
routines used in the program (all in machine language) are combined into a single file- the
executable file.
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NB/ An interpreter unlike a compiler sis.c a computer program that directly executes,
ote
i.e. performs, instructions written in a programming, without previously
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compiling them into a machine language program.
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If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating
system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is
known as a crosscompiler.

A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a
decompiler.

A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a

sourceto-source compiler or transpiler.

25
 Library Functions
There is a minimal set of library functions that should be supplied by all C compilers, which
your program may use. This collection of functions is called the C standard library. The
standard library contains functions to perform disk I/O (input/ output), string manipulations,
mathematics and much more. When your program is compiled, the code for library
functions is automatically added to your program. One of the most common library
functions is called printf() which is a general purpose output function. The quoted string
between the parenthesis of the printf() function is called an argument.

Printf(“This is a C program\n”)

The \n at the end of the text is an escape sequence tells the program to print a new line
as part of the output.

C DATA TYPES
In the C programming language, data types refer to a system used for declaring variables
or functions of different types. A data type is, therefore, a data storage format that can
contain a specific type or range of values. The type of a variable determines how much
space it occupies in storage and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

The basic data types in C are as follows:

Type Description
Char Character data and is used to hold a single character. A character can be a
letter, number, space, punctuation mark, or symbol - 1 byte long

Int A signed whole number in the range -32,768 to 32,767 - 2 bytes long

Float A real number (that is, a number that can contain a fractional part) – 4 bytes

Double A double-precision floating point value. Has more digits to the right of the
decimal point than a float – 8 bytes

Void Represents the absence of type. i.e. represents “no data”

26
USING C’S DATA TYPE MODIFIERS
The five basic types (int, float, char,double and void) can be modified to your specific need
using the following specifiers.
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Signed o
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Signed Data Modifier implies that the otedata type variable can store positive values as
n
well as negative values. pdf
.
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The use of the modifier withwintegers is redundant because the default integer
declaration assumes a signed number. The signed modifier is used with char to
create a small signed integer. Specified as signed, a char can hold numbers in the
range -128 to 127.
Unsigned
If we need to change the data type so that it can only store positive values,
“unsigned” data modifier is used.
This can be applied to char and int. When char is unsigned, it can hold positive
numbers in the range 0 to 255.

Long
Sometimes while coding a program, we need to increase the Storage Capacity of
a variable so that it can store values higher than its maximum limit which is there
as default. This can be applied to both int and double. When applied to int, it
doubles its length, in bits, of the base type that it modifies. For example, an
integer is usually 16 bits long. Therefore a long int is 32 bits in length. When long
is applied to a double, it roughly doubles the precision.
Short
A “short” type modifier does just the opposite of “long”. If one is not expecting to see
high range values in a program.
For example, if we need to store the “age” of a student in a variable, we will make
use of this type qualifier as we are aware that this value is not going to be very high

The type modifier precedes the type name. For example this declares a long integer.

long int age;

27
 Integer Types
Following table gives you details about standard integer types with its storage sizes and
value ranges:
Type Storage size Value range

Char 1 byte -128 to 127 or 0 to 255

unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 255

signed char 1 byte -128 to 127

Int 2 or 4 bytes -32,768 to 32,767 or -2,147,483,648 to

2,147,483,647

unsigned int 2 or 4 bytes 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295

Short 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767

unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to 65,535

Long 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

Floating-Point Types
Following table gives you details about standard floating-point types with storage sizes and
value ranges and their precision:
e
Type Storage size Value range o.k Precision
s.c
float 4 byte t e
1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal places
f no
double 8 byte 2.3E-308pdto 1.7E+308 15 decimal places
.
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long double 10 byte w
3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal places
w

The void Type

The void type specifies that no value is available. It is used in three kinds of situations:
Types and Description

1 Function returns as void. There are various functions in C which do not return
value or you can say they return void. A function with no return value has the
return type as void. For example, void exit (int status);

2 Function arguments as void. There are various functions in C which do not

accept any parameter. A function with no parameter can accept as a void.
For example, int rand(void);

28
3 Pointers to void A pointer of type void * represents the address of an object,
but not its type. For example, a memory allocation function void
*malloc( size_t size ); returns a pointer to void which can be casted to any
data type.

VARIABLES
A variable is a memory location whose value can change during program execution. In C a
variable must be declared before it can be used.

Variable Declaration
Declaring a variable tells the compiler to reserve space in memory for that particular
variable. A variable definition specifies a data type and the variable name and contains a
list of one or more variables of that type .Variables can be declared at the start of any
block of code. A declaration
begins with the type, followed by the name of one or more variables. For
example, Int high, low;
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;

Variables can be initialized when they are declared. This is done by adding an equals sign
and the required value after the declaration.

Int high = 250; /*Maximum Temperature*/

Int low = -40; /*Minimum Temperature*/
Int results[20]; /* series of temperature readings*/

TYPES OF VARIABLES
The Programming language C has two main variable types
• Local Variables
• Global Variables

29
Local Variables

A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a function.

• Local variables scope is confined within the block or function where it is defined.
Local variables must always be defined at the top of a block.
k e
• o.
When execution of the block starts the variable is available, and when the block
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ends the variable 'dies'. e
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Global Variables

Global variable is defined at the top of the program file and it can be visible and modified
by any function that may reference it. Global variables are declared outside all functions.

Sample Program.

#include <stdio.h>
int area; //global variable

int main ()
{
int a, b; //local variable

/* actual initialization */
a = 10;
b = 20;

printf("\t Side a is %d cm and side b is %d cm long\n",a,b);

area = a*b;
printf("\t The area of your rectangle
is : %d \n", area);

return 0;
}
30
Variable Names
Every variable has a name and a value. The name identifies the variable and the value
stores data. Every variable name in C must start with a letter; the rest of the name can
consist of letters, numbers and underscore characters. C is case sensitive i.e. it recognizes
upper and lower case characters as being different. You cannot use any of C’s keywords
like main, while, switch etc as variable names,

Examples of legal variable names:

X result outfile x1 out_fileetc

It is conventional in C not to use capital letters in variable names. These are used for
names of constants.

Declaration vs Definition

A declaration provides basic attributes of a symbol: its type and its name. A definition
provides all of the details of that symbol--if it's a function, what it does; if it's a class, what
fields and methods it has; if it's a variable, where that
e variable is stored. Often, the
o .k
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compiler only needs to have a declaration for something in order to compile a file into an
t es
object file, expecting that the linker can find o the definition from another file. If no source file
d fn
ever defines a symbol, but it is declared,.p you will get errors at link time complaining about
w
undefined symbols. In the following w
w short code, the definition of variable x means that the
storage for the variable is that it is a global variable.

int x; int
main() { x
= 3;
}

Inputting Numbers From The Keyboard Using Scanf()

Variables can also be initialized during program execution (run time). The scanf()
function is used to read values from the keyboard. For example, to read an integer value
use the following general form: scanf(“%d”, &var_name) As in

31
scanf(“%d”, &num)

The %d is a format specifier which tells the compiler that the second argument will be
receiving an integer value.
The & preceding the variable name means “address of”. The function allows the function to
place a value into one of its arguments.
The table below shows format specifiers or codes used in the scanf() function and their
meaning.

%c Read a single character

%d Read an integer

%f Read a floating point number

%lf Read a double

%s Read a string

%u Read a an unsigned integer

When used in a printf() function, a type specifier informs the function that a different type
item is being displayed.

SAMPLE PROGRAM USING SCANF()

#include <stdio.h>
int area; //global variable

int main ()
{
int a, b; //local variables

/* actual initialization */
printf("Enter the value of side a: ");
scanf("%d", &a);

printf("Enter the value of side b: ");

scanf("%d", &b); printf("\n");
printf("\t You have entered %d for side a and %d for side b\n", a, b);

32
 area = a*b; printf("\t The area of your rectangle
is : %d \n", area);

return 0;
}

CONSTANTS
C allows you to declare constants. When you declare a constant it is a bit like a variable
declaration except the value cannot be changed during program execution. The const
keyword is used to declare a constant, as shown below:
int const A = 1;
const int A =2;

These fixed values are also called literals.

Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a floating
constant, a character constant, or a string literal. There are also enumeration constants as
well.
The constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be
modified after their definition.

TYPE CASTING

Type casting is a way to convert a variable from one data type to another. For example, if
you want to store a long value into a simple integer then you can type cast long to int. You
can convert values from one type to another explicitly using the cast operator as follows:

(type_name) expression

Consider the following example where the cast operator causes the division of one integer
variable by another to be performed as a floating-point operation:
#include <stdio.h>

33
main() { int sum = 17, count = 5;
double mean;
mean = (double) sum / count; printf("Value of mean is
%d \n", mean );

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

Value of mean : 3.400000

It should be noted here that the cast operator has precedence over division, so the value
of sum is first converted to type double and finally it gets divided by count yielding a
double value.

Type conversions can be implicit which is performed by the compiler automatically, or it

can be specified explicitly through the use of the cast operator. It is considered good

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programming practice to use the cast operator whenever type conversions are necessary.
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C PROGRAMMING OPERATORS
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Operator is the symbol which operates on a value or a variable (operand). For example: +
is an operator to perform addition.

C programming language has a wide range of operators to perform various operations. For
better understanding of operators, these operators can be classified as:

OPERATORS IN C PROGRAMMING

1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Increment and Decrement Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Relational Operators
5. Logical Operators
6. Conditional Operators
7. Bitwise Operators
8. Special Operators

34
 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give -10

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 200

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator B / A will give 2

% Modulus Operator - remainder of after an B % A will give 0

integer division
Note: % operator can only be used with integers.

INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS – Unary Operators

In C, ++ and -- are called increment and decrement operators respectively. Both of these
operators are unary operators, i.e, used on single operand. ++ adds 1 to operand and --
subtracts 1 to operand respectively. For example:

Let a=5 a++; //a

becomes 6 a--; //a
becomes 5 ++a; //a
becomes 6
--a; //a becomes 5

Difference between ++ and -- operator as postfix and prefix

When i++ is used as prefix(like: ++var), ++var will increment the value of var and then return
it but, if ++ is used as postfix(like: var++), operator will return the value of operand first and
then increment it. This can be demonstrated by an example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
35
 int c=2;
printf("%d\n",c++); /*this statement displays 2 then, only c incremented by 1
to 3.*/
printf("%d",++c); /*this statement increments 1 to c then, only c is
displayed.*/
return 0;

Output

2
4

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS – Binary Operators

The most common assignment operator is =. This operator assigns the value in the right
side to the left side. For example:

var=5 //5 is assigned to var a=c; //value of c is

assigned to a
5=c; // Error! 5 is a constant.

Operator Example Same as

= a=b a=b

+= a+=b a=a+b

-= a-=b a=a-b

*= a*=b a=a*b

Operator Example Same as

/= a/=b a=a/b

%= a%=b a=a%b
NB/ += means Add and Assign etc.

36
RELATIONAL OPERATORS - Binary Operators
Relational operators check relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it
returns value 1 and if the relation is false, it returns value 0. For example:

a>b

Here, > is a relational operator. If a is greater than b, a>b returns 1 if not then, it returns 0.

Relational operators are used in decision making and loops in C programming.

Operator Meaning of Operator Example
== Equal to 5= =3 returns false (0)
> Greater than 5>3 returns true (1)
< Less than 5<3 returns false (0)
!= Not equal to 5!=3 returns true(1)

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>= Greater than or equal to 5>=3 returns true (1)
<= Less than or equal to 5<=3 return false (0)

LOGICAL OPERATORS - Binary Operators

Logical operators are used to combine expressions containing relational operators. In
C, there are 3 logical operators:

Meaning of
Operator Example
Operator

If c=5 and d=2 then,((c= =5) && (d>5))

&& Logical AND
returns false.

If c=5 and d=2 then, ((c= =5) || (d>5)) returns

|| Logical OR
true.

! Logical NOT If c=5 then, !(c= =5) returns false.

The following table shows the result of operator && evaluating the expression a&&b:

37
&& OPERATOR (and)

a b a && b

true true true

true false false

false true false

false false false

The operator || corresponds to the Boolean logical operation OR, which yields true if either
of its operands is true, thus being false only when both operands are false. Here are the
possible results of a || b:

|| OPERATOR (or)

a b a || b

true true true

true false true

false true true

false false false

Explanation

For expression, ((c==5) && (d>5)) to be true, both c==5 and d>5 should be true but, (d>5)
is false in the given example. So, the expression is false. For expression ((c==5) || (d>5)) to
be true, either the expression should be true.

Since, (c==5) is true. So, the expression is true. Since, expression (c==5) is true, !(c==5) is
false.

38
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CONDITIONAL OPERATOR df – Ternary Operators
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Conditional operator takes three operands and consists of two symbols ? and : .
Conditional operators are used for decision making in C. For example: c=(c>0)?10:-
10;

If c is greater than 0, value of c will be 10 but, if c is less than 0, value of c will be -10.

BITWISE OPERATORS

Bitwise operators work on bits and performs bit-by-bit operation.

PRECEDENCE OF OPERATORS

If more than one operator is involved in an expression then, C language has a predefined
rule of priority of operators. This rule of priority of operators is called operator
precedence.

39
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those with the
lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence operators will
be evaluated first.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right
Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* &sizeof Right to left
Multiplicative */% Left to right
Additive +- Left to right
Relational <<= >>= Left to right
Equality == != Left to right
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Left to right
Logical AND && Left to right
Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left
Comma , Left to right

ASSOCIATIVITY OF OPERATORS
Associativity indicates in which order two operators of same precedence (priority)
executes. Let us suppose an expression:
a= =b!=c

Here, operators == and != have the same precedence. The associativity of both == and !=
is left to right, i.e., the expression in left is executed first and execution take pale towards
right. Thus, a==b!=c equivalent to :
(a= =b)!=c
Operators may be left-associative (meaning the operations are grouped from the left),
rightassociative (meaning the operations are grouped from the right)

Operator Name Associativity Operators

Unary right to left ++ -- ! ~

40
Multiplicative left to right * / %

Additive left to right + -

Bitwise Shift left to right <<>>

Relational left to right <><= >=

Equality left to right == !=

Bitwise AND left to right &

Bitwise Exclusive OR left to right ^

Bitwise Inclusive OR left to right

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Logical AND left to right &&

Logical OR left to right ||

Conditional right to left ?:

Assignment right to left = += -= *= /= <<= >>= %= &= ^= |=

Comma left to right ,

41
CONTROL STRUCTURES
Definition
Control structuresrepresent the forms by which statements in a program are executed. Flow
of control refers to the order in which the individual statements, instructions or function calls of
a program are executed or evaluated.

IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL STRUCTURES

Generally, a program should execute the statements one by one until the defined end. This type
of a program structure is called sequential structure. The functionality of this type of program
is limited since it flows in a single direction. However, all high-level programming languages
enable the programmer to change the flow of program execution. This is done by the use of
control structures whose main benefits are to enable
e decision making and repetition as well
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asgiving the power to do far more complex processing c and provideflexibility with logic. The
es.
t
sophisticated logic is necessary for a program
f no to solve complex problems.
d
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w
The kinds of control flow statementsw supported by different languages vary, but can be
categorized by their effect:
continuation at a different statement i.e. unconditional jump e.g.
GoTostatements executing a set of statements only if some condition is met i.e.
choice executing a set of statements zero or more times, until some condition is
met i.e. loop executing a set of distant statements, after which the flow of
control usually returns e.g.
subroutines/functions

TYPES OF CONTROL STRUCTURES

There are three types in C:
[Link] structures
Program statements are executed in the sequence in which they appear in the program.

[Link] structures/Decision Structures

Statement block is executed only if some condition is met. These structures include if,
if/else, and switch. Selection structures are extensively used in programming because they

42
 allow the program to decide an action based upon user's input or other processes for
instance in password checking.

[Link]/Iterative structures
This is where a group of statements in a program may have to be executed repeatedly until
some condition is [Link] include while, do/while and for

SELECTION STRUCTURES

(a) THE IF SELECTION STRUCTURE

– Used to choose among alternative courses of action i.e. the if statement provides a
junction at which the program has to select which path to follow. The if selection performs
an action only if the condition is true,

General form
If
(expression)
statement

Pseudocode:

If student’s marks is greater than or equal to 600

Print “Passed”

As in

if (marks>=600)
printf(“Passed”);

43
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If condition is true .p
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– Print statement executed and program goes on to next statement
– If false, print statement is ignored and the program goes onto the next statement NB/
Indenting makes programs easier to read

true
grade >= 60 print “Passed”

false

Flow chart for the if selection structure

NB/ The statement in the if structure can be a single statement or a block (Compound
statement). If it’s a block of statements, it must be marked off by braces.

if (expression)
{
Block of statements
}

As in

If (salary>5000)
{
tax_amount = salary * 1.5;
printf(“Tax charged is %f”, tax_amount);
}

44
(b) THE IF/ELSE

While if only performs an action if the condition is true, if/else specifies an action to be
performed both
when the condition is true and when it is false. E.g.

Pseudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
e
Print “Passed”
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else s.c
e
Print “Failed” ot n
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false true
grade >= 60

print “Failed” print “Passed”

Flow chart for the if/else selection structure

Example
if (x >=100)
{
printf(“Let us increment x:\n”);
x++; }
else

printf(“x < 0 \n);

(c) THE IF...ELSE IF...ELSE STATEMENT

– Test for multiple cases/conditions.

45
– Once a condition is met, the other statements are skipped
– Deep indentation usually not used in practice

Pseudocode for an if..elseif..else structure

If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
Else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D” else
Print “F”

Example

#include <stdio.h>
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main() { int marks;
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printf("Please enter your
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MARKS:"); scanf("%d", w
w
&marks); w

if (marks>=90 && marks <=100)

printf("Your grade is A\n");

else if (marks>=80 && marks <=89)

printf("Your grade is B\n");

else if (marks>=70 && marks <=79)

printf("Your grade is C\n");

else if (marks>=60 && marks <=69)

46
printf("Your grade is D\n"); else if
(marks >100) printf("Marks
out of range\n");
else
printf("Your grade is F\n");
}

(d) NESTED IF STATEMENTS

One if or else if statement can be used inside another if or else if statement(s).

Syntax
The syntax for a nested if statement is as follows:

if (boolean_expression 1)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true */
if(boolean_expression 2)
{
/* Executes when the boolean expression 2 is
true */ }
}

You can nest else if...else in the similar way as you have nested if statement.

Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition
*/ int a = 100; int b =
200;
/* check the boolean condition
*/ if( a = = 100 ) {
/* if condition is true then check the following */
if( b = = 200 )

47
 {
/* if condition is true then print the following
*/ printf("Value of a is 100 and b is 200\
n" ); }
}
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
Value of a is 100 and b is 200
Exact value of a is : 100
Exact value of b is : 200

(e) SWITCH STATEMENT

A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Each
value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each switch case.

Syntax
The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows:

switch(expression)
{
case constant-expression
statement(s); break;
case constant-
expression :
statement(s);
break;
/* you can have any number of case statements */
default :
statement(s);
}

48
 The following rules apply to a switch statement: .k
e
o
1) You can have any number of case [Link] a switch. Each case is followed by the value
s
to be compared to and a colon. ote
n
2) The constant-expression for a case must
pdf be the same data type as the variable in the switch
3) When the variable being switched won . is equal to a case, the statements following that case will
execute until a break statement wiswreached.
4) When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow of control jumps to the
next line following the switch statement.
5) Not every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of control will fall through
to subsequent cases until a break is reached.
6)A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must appear at the end of the
switch. The default case can be used for performing a task when none of the cases is
true. No break is needed in the default case.

Sample Switch Statement

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{

char grade;

printf("Enter your grade:");

scanf("%c", &grade);

49
switch (grade)
{ case
'A':
printf("Excellent!\n");
break; case 'B':
printf("Very Good!\n");
break; case 'C':
printf("Good!\n");
break; case 'D':
printf("Work harder!\n");
break; default:
printf("Fail!\n");
}
}

(f) NESTED SWITCH STATEMENTS

It is possible to have a switch as part of the statement sequence of an outer
switch. Even if the case constants of the inner and outer switch contain common
values, no conflicts will arise.

Syntax
The syntax for a nested e switch statement is as follows:
o.k
switch(ch1) { case 'A': c
es.
printf("This A is part of outer ot
d fn
switch" ); switch(ch2) .p
w
w
{ case 'A': printf("This A w
is part of inner switch" ); break;
case 'B':
} break; case 'B': }

50
Example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition
*/ int a = 100; int b =
200; switch(a) { case
100:
printf("This is part of outer switch\n",
a ); switch(b) { case 200:
printf("This is part of inner switch\n", a );
printf(“A is equals to %d and B is equals to %d”, a, b);
}
}
printf("Exact value of a is : %d\n", a );
printf("Exact value of b is : %d\n", b );
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

This is part of outer switch

This is part of inner switch
A is equals to 100 and B is equals to 200
Exact value of a is : 100
Exact value of b is : 200

REPETITION/ITERATIVE/LOOP STRUCTURES

A loop statement allows the execution of a statement or a group of statements multiple

times until a condition either tests true or false. There are two types of loops: Pre-test and

– while loop
– for loop
Post-test loops check a logical condition after each repetition for termination. The do-while loop is a post-
51
test loop.
.ke
. co
es
post-test loops. In a pretest loop, a logical condition is checked before each repetition to
determine if the loop should terminate. These loops include:

(a) WHILE LOOP IN C

A while loop statement repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a given condition
is true.

The syntax of a while loop in C programming language is:

while(condition)
{ statement(s);
update
expression
}

The statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements. The loop iterates while
the condition is true.
When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following
the loop.

52
Example
#include <stdio.h> int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */ int a = 10; //loop
index

/* while loop execution */ while( a < 20 )

{ printf("value of a: %d\n", a); a++; }
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it

produces the following result:
k e
value of a: 10 value of a: 11
co.
.
value of a: 12 value of a: 13
t es
o
value of a: 14 value of a: 15 d fn
.p
value of a: 16 value of a: 17 w
w
value of a: 18
w
value of a: 19

(b) FOR LOOP IN C

A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to
execute a specific number of times.

Syntax
The syntax of a for loop in C programming language is:

for ( initial expression; test expression/logical codition; update expression )

{ statement(s);
}

Here is the flow of control in a for loop:

53
 1. This step initializes any loop control variables. You are not required to put a statement
here, as long as a semicolon appears.

2. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is executed. If it is false,
the body of the loop does not execute and flow of control jumps to the next statement
just after the for loop.

3. After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up to the update
expression. This statement allows you to update any loop control variables. This
statement can be left blank, as long as a semicolon appears after the condition.

4. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and the process
repeats itself. After the condition becomes false, the for loop terminates.

Flow Diagram

k e
co.
.
t es
o
d fn
.p
w
w
w

Example
#include <stdio.h> int main ()

54
{ int a;//loop index /* for loop
execution */ for(a = 10; a < 20;
a++)
{
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
} return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

(c) DO...WHILE LOOP IN C

Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop,
thedo...whileloop in C programming language checks its condition at the bottom of the loop.
Ado...whileloop is similar to a while loop, except that ado...whileloop is guaranteed to execute
at least one time. The structure, therefore loops until a condition tests false i.e. loop until.

Syntax
do {
statement(s);
}while( condition );

If the condition is true, the flow of

e control jumps back up to do, and the

o.k
c
55
es.
ot
d fn
statement(s) in the loop execute again. This process repeats until the given condition becomes
false.

Example
#include <stdio.h> int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */ int a = 10;
/* do loop execution */ do
{ printf("value of a: %d\n", a); a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 ); return

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

56
(d) NESTED LOOPS IN C
C programming language allows the use of one loop inside another loop. The following
section shows a few examples to illustrate the concept.

Syntax
The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows:

k e
for ( init; condition; increment ) co.
.
{ for ( init; condition; increment t es
o
d fn
)
.p
w
{ w
w
statement(s);
} statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested while loop statement in C programming language is as follows:

while(condition)
{ while(condition)
{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

The syntax for a nested do...while loop statement in C programming language is as follows:

do
{ statemen
t(s);
do {
statement(s);
}while( condition );
}while( condition );
57
A final note on loop nesting is that you can put any type of loop inside of any other type of
loop. For example, a for loop can be inside a while loop or vice versa.

Example

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int n, c, k;

printf("Enter number of rows:");

scanf("%d",&n);

for ( c = 1 ; c <= n ; c++ )

{
for( k = 1 ; k <= c ; k++ )
{
printf("%d",k);
}
printf("\n");
}

return 0;
}

Result:
If the user interred 5 as the number of rows, the output would be:
1
12
123
1234
12345

58
TERMINATING LOOPS
• Counter-controlled loops - a loop controlled by a counter variable, generally where the
number of times the loop will execute is known ahead of time especially in for loops.
• Event-controlled loops - loops where termination depends on an event rather than
executing a fixed number of times for example when a zero value is keyed in or search through
data until an item is found. Used mostly in while loops and do-while loops.
Using a Sentinel
• The value -999 is sometimes referred to as a sentinel value. The value serves as the
“guardian” for the termination of the loop. It is a good idea to make the sentinel a constant:
#define STOPNUMBER -999 while
(number != STOPNUMBER) ...

BRANCHING STATEMENTS

(a) BREAK STATEMENT IN C

The break statement has the following two uses:

1. When the break statement is encountered inside a loop, the loop is immediately
terminated and program control resumes at the next statement following the loop.

2. It can be used to terminate a case in the switch statement.

3. If you are using nested loops (i.e., one loop inside another loop), the break statement will
stop the execution of the innermost loop and start executing the next line of code after the
block.

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */ int a = 10;

59
/* do loop execution */ do {
if( a = = 15)
{
/* skip the iteration */ break; }
printf("value of a: %d\n", a); a++;
}while( a < 20 ); return 0;
}

(b) CONTINUE STATEMENT IN C

The continue statement works somewhat like the break statement. Instead of forcing
termination, however, continue forces the next iteration of the loop to take place, skipping any
code in between. For the forloop, continue statement causes the conditional test and
increment portions of the loop to execute. For the while and do...while loops, continue
statement causes the program control to pass to the conditional tests.

Example
//program to demonstrate the working of continue statement in C programming
# include <stdio.h> int main(){ int
i,num,product; for(i=1,product=1;i<=4;++i)
{ printf("Enter num%d:",i);
scanf("%d",&num); if(num==0)
continue; /*In this program, when num equals to zero, it skips the statement product*=num and
continue the loop. */ product*=num;
} printf("product=%d",product); return 0;
}value of a: 19

(c) GOTO STATEMENT IN C

A gotostatement provides an unconditional jump from the gototo a labeled statement in the
same function.
NOTE: Use of gotostatement is highly discouraged in any programming language because it
makes difficult to trace the control flow of a program, making the program hard to understand

60
and hard to modify. Any program that uses a gotocan be rewritten so that it doesn't need the
goto.

Syntax
The syntax for a gotostatement in C is as follows:
goto label;
..
.

k e
co.
.
t es
o
d fn
.p
w
w
w

Example
#include <stdio.h> int main ()
{
/* for loop execution */ int
a,userinput,sum=0;
for(a = 0; a < 5;a++)
{
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&userinput); if (userinput<1)
goto jump;
sum+=userinput;
}

61
jump:
printf("T
he sum
of the
values
is %d\
n",
sum);
return
0;
}

(d) THE RETURN STATEMENT

The last of the branching statements is the return statement. The return statement exits from the
current function, and control flow returns to where the function was invoked. The return
statement has two forms: one that returns a value, and one that doesn't. To return a value,
simply put the value (or an expression that calculates the value) after the return keyword. return
count;

The data type of the returned value must match the type of the method's declared return
value. When a function is declared void, use the form of return that doesn't return a value.

return;

e
THE INFINITE LOOP o.k
c
A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition neveres. becomes false. The for loop is traditionally
t
f no
used for this purpose. Since none of the dthree expressions that form the for loop arerequired,
.p
w
you can make an endless loop by leaving the conditional expression empty.
w
w

#include <stdio.h> int main ()

{ for( ; ; )
{ printf("This loop will run forever.\n");
} return0;

62
}

When the conditional expression is absent, it is assumed to be true. You may have an
initialization and increment expression, but C programmers more commonly use the for(;;)
construct to signify an infinite loop.
NOTE: You can terminate an infinite loop by pressing Ctrl + C keys.

63
CHAPTER 5

SUBPROGRAMS IN C
A sub-program is a series of C statements that perform a specific task in a
program. A subprogram can be called within another procedure. Every C program
has at least one function, which is main().A C program can be divided up into
separate functions.

A function declaration tells the compiler about a function's name, return

type, and parameters. A function definition provides the actual body of the
function. The C standard library provides numerous built-in functions that
your program can call. Forexample, function strcat() to concatenate two
strings, function memcpy() to copy one memory location to another location
and many more functions.
A function is known with various names like a method or a sub-routine or a
procedure, etc. However, a function returns a value while a procedure
doesn’t: it just executes commands.

A Subprogram is:

• a part of a program that performs one or more related tasks

e
• has its own name o.k
c
es.
• written as an independent partt of the program
o
d fn
.p
w
w in programming are:
Benefits of using sub-procedures
w
Sub-programs help to break programs into several but logical sections. The
smaller programs/routines make programming, debugging and
subsequent maintenance easier.
They also help in coding repeated operations such as frequently used
calculations, text etc thus making programming less repetitive and faster.
Procedures used in one program can act as building blocks for other
programs with slight modifications i.e. code re-use.

64
 Programmers working on large projects can divide the workload by making
different functions.

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

Basically, there are two types of functions in C on basis of whether it is defined

by user or not.

• Library function
• User defined function

LIBRARY FUNCTION

Library functions are the in-built function in C programming system. For example:
printf()

- printf() is used for displaying output in C. scanf()

- scanf() is used for taking input in C.

USER DEFINED FUNCTION

C allows programmers to define their own function according to their requirements

known as user defined functions.

How user-defined function works in C Programming?

#include <stdio.h> void

function_name(){
................
................
} int main()
{ ........... .........
..
function_name();
...........
...........
}

65
 e
not
d f
.p
w
w
w
As mentioned earlier, every C program begins from main() and program starts
executing the codes inside main() function. When the control of program reaches
to function_name() inside main() function. The control of program jumps to void
function_name() and executes the codes inside it. When, all the codes inside that
user-defined function are executed, control of the program jumps to the
statement just after function_name() from where it is called. Analyze the figure
below for understanding the concept of function in C programming.

e
o.k
c
es.
t
f no
Remember, the function name is an identifier and should be unique.
d
.p
w
w
w
DEFINING A FUNCTION
The general form of a function definition in C programming language is as follows:

return_typefunction_name( parameter list )

{
body of the function
}

66
A function definition in C programming language consists of a function header
and a function body. Here are all the parts of a function:

1. Return Type: A function may return a value. The return_type is the data
type of the value the function returns. Some functions perform the desired
operations without returning a value. In this case, the return_type is the
keyword void.
2. Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function name
and the parameter list together constitute the function signature.
3. Parameters: A parameter is like a placeholder. When a function is invoked,
you pass a value to the formal parameter. This value is referred to as
actual parameter or argument. The parameter list refers to the type,
order, and number of the parameters of a function. Parameters are optional;
that is, a function may contain no parameters.
4. Function Body: The function body contains a collection of statements that
define what the function does.

Example
Following is the source code for a function called max(). This function takes two
parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum between the two:

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2)

{
/* local variable declaration */
int result;
if (num1 >
num2) result =
num1; else
result = num2;
return
result; }

67
FUNCTION DECLARATIONS
ke a function name and how to call
A function declaration tells the compiler .about
c o
s.
the function. The actual body of the function can be defined separately.
e
not
f
. pd
A function declaration has the following parts:
w
w
w
return_typefunction_name( parameter list );

For the above defined function max(), following is the function declaration:

int max(int num1, int num2);

Parameter names are not important in function declaration; only their type is
required, so the following is also valid declaration:

int max(int, int);

Function declaration is required when you define a function in one source file
and you call that function in another file. In such case you should declare the
function at the top of the file calling the function.

CALLING A FUNCTION
While creating a C function, you give a definition of what the function has to
do. To use a function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined
task. When a program calls a function, program control is transferred to the
called function. A called function performs defined task, and when its return
statement is executed or when its function-ending closing brace is reached, it
returns program control back to the main program. Therefore, the calling
program is suspended during execution of the called subprogram.
To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with
function name, and if function returns a value, then you can store returned
value. For example:

68
#include <stdio.h> /* function
declaration */ int max(int num1, int
num2); int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */ int a = 100;
int b = 200; int ret;
/* calling a function to get max value */ ret = max(a, b);
printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret ); return 0;
}

/* function returning the max between two numbers */ int max(int num1, int
num2)
{
/* local variable declaration */ int result; if ke
co.
(num1 > num2) result = num1; else result s.
ote
= num2; fn
d
return result; } .p
w
w
w
The formal parameters behave like other local variables inside the function and
are created upon entry into the function and destroyed upon exit.

While calling a function, there are two ways that arguments can be passed to a
function:

Call Type Description

This method copies the actual value of an argument into
the formal parameter of the function. In this case, changes
Call by value made to the parameter inside the function have no
effect on the argument.

This method copies the address of an argument into the

formal parameter. Inside the function, the address is
used to

69
 Call by reference access the actual argument used in the call. This
means that changes made to the parameter affect the
argument.

By default, C uses call by value to pass arguments. In general, this means that
code within a function cannot alter the arguments used to call the function and
above mentioned example while calling max() function used the same method.
FUNCTION ARGUMENTS
If a function is to use arguments, it must declare variables that accept the
values of the arguments. These variables are called the formal parameters of
the function. The formal parameters behave like other local variables inside
the function and are created upon entry into the function and destroyed upon
exit.
A formal parameter is a dummy variable listed in the subprogram header and
used in the subprogram. An actual parameter represents a value used in the
subprogram call statement.

70
 e
o.k
c
When max() is called, we pass it the arguments
es. which the function uses as the values
t
of ret. This process is called parameteropassing.
f n
d
.p in a method declaration. Arguments are the
Parameters refers to the list of variables
w
w the method is invoked. When you invoke a
actual values that are passed in when
w
method, the arguments used must match the declaration's parameters in type and
*****

order.

TYPES OF VARIABLES
The Programming language C has two main variable types
• Local Variables
• Global Variables

LOCAL VARIABLES

A local variable is a variable that is declared inside a function.

• Local variables scope is confined within the block or function where it is

defined. Local variables must always be defined at the top of a block.
• When execution of the block starts the variable is available, and when
the block ends the variable 'dies'.

GLOBAL VARIABLES
Global variable is defined at the top of the program file and it can be visible and
modified by any function that may reference it. Global variables are declared
outside all functions.

Sample Program.
#include <stdio.h> int
area; //global variable
int main () {
int a, b; //local variable

71
 /* actual initialization
*/ a = 10; b = 20;
printf ("\t Side a is %d cm and side b is %d cm long\n", a,
b); area = a*b; printf ("\t The area of your rectangle is :
%d \n", area); return 0; }

EXERCISES
e
[Link] a C program to
o.k add two integers. Define a
c
function add to add es. integers and display sum
ot
in main() function. d fn
.p
w
w
//main function w
#include<stdio.h> int add(int a, int b); int
main() {
int a, b, sum;

printf ("Enter the first integer:");

scanf ("%d", &a);

printf("Enter the second integer:");

scanf("%d", &b);

sum = add(a,b);
printf("The sum of the two numbers is %d\n", result);

//start of second function

int add(int a,int b)
{
int result;
result = a+b;

72
return result;
}

[Link] a C program– max()- to determine the greater of two integers. Call the
function from main() and supply it with two integers and then display the
greater of the two.

#include <stdio.h>

/* function declaration */ int max(int, int);

int main ()
{
/* local variable definition */ int a = 100;
int b = 200; int ret;

/* calling a function to get max value */ ret = max(a, b);

printf( "Max value is : %d\n", ret );
return 0;
e
}
o.k
s.c
e
ot
/* function returning the max between twofnnumbers */ int max(int num1, int
d
num2) .p
w
w
{ w
/* local variable declaration */ int result;
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1; else
result = num2;

return result; }

CHAPTER 6

73
DATA STRUCTURES
These refer togroups of data elements that are organized in a single unit so
that they can be used more efficientlyas compared to the simple data types
such as integers and strings. An example of a data structure is the array.
Ordinary variables store one value at a time while an array will store more than
one value at a time in a single variable name.

Data structures are important for grouping sets of similar data together and
passing them as one. For example, if you have a method that prints a set of
data but you don't know when writing the procedure how large that set is
going to be, you could use an array to pass the data to that method and loop
through it. Data structures can be classified using various criteria.

a)Linear
In linear data structures, values are arranged in linear fashion. A linear data
e
.k
structure traverses the data elements sequentially. The elements in the
co
s. and every element has exactly two
structure are adjacent to one another other
o te
dfn
neighbour elements to which it is connected. Arrays, linked lists, stacks and
. p
queues are examples of linearwdata structures.
w
b)Non-Linear w
The data values in this structure are not arranged in order but every data item
is attached to several other data items in a way that is specific for reflecting
relationships. Tree, graph, table and sets are examples of non-linear data
structures.
c)Homogenous
In this type of data structures, values of the same types of data are stored, as in
an array.
d)Non-homogenous
In this type of data structures, data values of different types are grouped, as in
structures and classes.

74
e)Dynamic
In dynamic data structures such as references and pointers, size and memory
locations can be changed during program execution. These data structures
can grow and shrink during execution. f)Static
With a static data structure, the size of the structure is fixed. Static data
structures such as arrays are very good for storing a well-defined number of
data items.

75
 p
.
Instead of declaring individual variables, such as number0, number1, ..., and
w
number99, you declare one array wvariable such as numbers and use numbers[0],
w
numbers[1], and ..., numbers[99] to represent individual variables. A specific element
in an array is accessed by an index.

All arrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address

corresponds to the first element and the highest address to the last element.

DECLARING ARRAYS

To declare an array in C, a programmer specifies the type of the elements and

the number of elements required by an array as follows:

type arrayName [ arraySize ];

This is called a single-dimensional array. The arraySize must be an integer

constant greater than zero and type can be any valid C data type. For example, to
declare a 10element array called balance of type double, use this statement:

double balance[10];
Now balance is a variable array which is sufficient to hold up to 10 double
numbers.

INITIALIZING ARRAYS

You can initialize an array in C either one by one or using a single statement as
follows:

double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};

The number of values between braces { }can not be larger than the number of
elements that we declare for the array between square brackets [ ]. Following is
an example to assign a single element of the array:

If you omit the size of the array, an array just big enough to hold the initialization is
created. Therefore, if you write:

76
 doublebalance[] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0};

You will create exactly the same array as you did

e in the previous example.
k
co.
balance[4] = 50.0; .
t es
o
The above statement assigns elementdnumberfn 5th in the array a value of 50.0. Array
. p
with 4th index will be 5th ie. last element because all arrays have 0 as the index of
w
their first element which is alsoww
called base index. Following is the pictorial
representation of the same array we discussed above:

ACCESSING ARRAY ELEMENTS

An element is accessed by indexing the array name. This is done by placing

the index of the element within square brackets after the name of the array.
For example: double salary = balance[9];

The above statement will take 10th element from the array and assign the value
to salary variable. Following is an example which will use all the above
mentioned three concepts viz. declaration, assignment and accessing arrays:

#include <stdio.h>
int main () { int n[ 10 ]; /* n is an array of 10 integers */ inti,j;

/* initialize elements of array n to 0 */ for( i = 0; i< 10; i++ )

{ n[ i ] = i + 100; /* set element at location i to i
+ 100 */
}

/* output each array element's value */ for (j = 0; j < 10; j+

+)
{ printf("Element[%d] = %d\n", j, n[j] );
} return 0; }

When the above code is compiled and executed, it

produces the following result:
k e
co.
77.
t es
o
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Element[0] = 100
Element[1] = 101
Element[2] = 102
Element[3] = 103
Element[4] = 104
Element[5] = 105
Element[6] = 106
Element[7] = 107
Element[8] = 108
Element[9] = 109

SORT TECHNIQUES

Bubble Sort
In the bubble sort, as elements are sorted they gradually "bubble" (or rise) to
their proper location in the array, like bubbles rising in a glass of soda. The
bubble sort
repeatedly compares adjacent elements of an array. The first and second
elements are compared and swapped if out of order. Then the second and
third elements are
compared and swapped if out of order. This sorting process continues until the
last two elements of the array are compared and swapped if out of order.

When this first pass through the array is complete, the bubble sort returns to
elements one and two and starts the process all over again.

The table below follows an array of numbers before, during, and after a bubble sort
fordescending order. A "pass" is defined as one full trip through the array

78
comparing and if necessary, swapping, adjacent elements. Several passes have
to be made through the array before it is finally sorted

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91

After Pass #1: 84 76 86 94 91 69

After Pass #2: 84 86 94 91 76 69

After Pass #3: 86 94 91 84 76 69

After Pass #4: 94 91 86 84 76 69

After Pass #5 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69

The bubble sort is an easy algorithm to program, but it is slower than many
other sorts. With a bubble sort, it is always necessary to make one final
"pass" through the
array to check to see that no swaps are made to ensure that the process is
finished. In actuality, the process is finished before this last pass is made.

// Bubble Sort Function for Descending Order

#include<stdio.h>main(
)
. ke
o
{
s.c
te
int control , control2, marks, total=0, otemp;floatmeanmark;
n
int allmarks[5]; pdf
.
w
w
w
for (control = 0; control <= 4; control++)
{
printf("Please enter student's marks:");
scanf("%d", & marks); allmarks[control]=marks;
total = total + marks;
}
meanmark = (float) total/control;

for (control = 0; control < 4; control++) { for

(control2 = 0; control2 < 4; control2++) {
if (allmarks[control2] >allmarks[control2+1])

79
 {
temp = allmarks[control2];
allmarks[control2]= allmarks[control2+1];
allmarks[control2+1] = temp;
}
}
}

printf("\nThe sorted list of marks is:\n");

for (control=0; control<=4;control++)

{
printf("%d\n",
allmarks[control]); }

printf("\nThe total marks is %d\n", total);

printf("Mean marks is %f\n", meanmark);
}

Exchange Sort
The exchange sort is similar to its cousin, the bubble sort, in that it compares
elements of the array and swaps those that are not in their proper positions.
(Some
people refer to the "exchange sort" as a "bubble sort".) The difference between
these two sorts is the manner in which they compare the elements. The
exchange sort compares the first element with each following element of
the array, making any necessary swaps.

80
 . ke
o
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ote
When the first pass through the array is complete, the exchange sort then takes the
second element and compares it with eachf n following element of the array swapping
d
elements that are out of order. [Link] process continues until the entire array is
w
ordered. w
w
Let's examine our same table of elements again using an exchange sort for descending
order. Remember, a "pass" is defined as one full trip through the array comparing and
if necessary, swapping elements.

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91

After Pass #1: 94 69 76 84 86 91

After Pass #2: 94 91 69 76 84 86

After Pass #3: 94 91 86 69 76 84

After Pass #4: 94 91 86 84 69 76

After Pass #5 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69

The exchange sort, in some situations, is slightly more efficient than the
bubble sort. It is not necessary for the exchange sort to make that final
complete pass needed by the bubble sort to determine that it is finished.

//Exchange Sort Function for Descending Order

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{ int i,
j;
int temp; // holding variable
int num[5];

81
//intializearray for(i =0;
i<=4; i++){ printf("Enter a
number:");
scanf("%d",&num[i]);
}
//sort array
for (i=0; i< (4); i++) // element to be compared
{
for(j = (i+1); j < 5; j++) // rest of the elements
{
if (num[i] < num[j]) // descending order
{
temp= num[i]; // swap
num[i] = num[j]; e
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num[j] = temp; c
es.
} ot
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} .p
w
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} w
//print sorted array
printf("\nSorted array:\n");

for(i =0; i<=4; i++){

printf("\t%d\n", num[i]);
} return;
}

Selection Sort
The selection sort is a combination of searching and sorting.

During each pass, the unsorted element with the smallest (or largest) value
is moved to its proper position in the array.

82
The number of times the sort passes through the array is one less than the
number of items in the array. In the selection sort, the inner loop finds the next
smallest (or largest) value and the outer loop places that value into its proper
location.

Let's look at our same table of elements using a selection sort for descending
order. Remember, a "pass" is defined as one full trip through the array comparing
and if necessary, swappingelements.

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91

After Pass #1: 84 91 76 86 94 69

After Pass #2: 84 91 94 86 76 69

After Pass #3: 86 91 94 84 76 69

After Pass #4: 94 91 86 84 76 69

After Pass #5 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69

While being an easy sort to program, the selection sort is one of the least
efficient. The algorithm offers no way to end the sort early, even if it begins
with an already sorted list.

// Selection Sort Function for Descending Order

void main()
{
int i, j, first,
temp; int num[5]
for (i= 4; i> 0; i--)
{ first = 0; // initialize to subscript of first
. ke
element for (j=1; j<=i; j++) // locate osmallest between
c
positions 1 and i. es.
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{ d fn
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if (num[j] < num[first])
w
w
first = j;

83
 }
temp = num[first]; // Swap smallest found with element in position i.
num[first] = num[i];
num[i] = temp;
}
return;
}

Shell Sort
The shell sort is named after its inventor D. L. Shell. Instead of comparing
adjacent elements, like the bubble sort, the shell sort repeatedly compares
elements that are a certain distance away from each other (d represents this
distance). The value of d starts out as half the input size and is halved after
each pass through the array. The elements are compared and swapped
when needed. The equation d= (N + 1) / 2 is used. Notice that only integer
values are used for d since integer division is occurring.

Let's look at our same list of values for descending order with the shell sort.
Remember, a "pass" is defined as one full trip through the array comparing and if
necessary, swappingelements.

Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91 d

After Pass #1: 86 94 91 84 69 76 3

After Pass #2: 91 94 86 84 69 76 2

After Pass #3: 94 91 86 84 76 69 1

After Pass #4 (done): 94 91 86 84 76 69 1

First Pass: d = (6 + 1) / 2 = 3. Compare 1st and 4th , 2nd and 5th, and 3rd and
6th items since they are 3 positions away from each other))
Second Pass: value for d is halved d = (3 + 1) / 2 = 2. Compare items two
places away such as 1st and 3rd ……
Third Pass: value for d is halved d = (2 + 1) / 2 = 1. Compare items one place
away such as 1st and 2nd …..
Last Pass: sort continues until d = 1 and the pass occurs without any swaps.

84
 This sorting process, with its comparison model, is an efficient sorting
algorithm.

//Shell Sort Function for Descending Order

void main()
{
int I,d , temp, length[5];
while( (d > 1)) // boolean flag (true when not equal to 0)
{
d = (d+1) / 2;
for (i = 0; i< (5 - d); i++) k e
co.
{ .
t es
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if (num[i + d] > num[i])
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{ .p
w
w
temp = num[i +w d]; // swap positions i+d
and i num[i + d] = num[i];
num[i] = temp; flag = 1; // tells
swap has occurred }
} }
return;
}

Quick Sort
The quicksort is considered to be very efficient,with its "divide and conquer"
algorithm. This sort starts by dividing the original array into two sections
(partitions) based upon the value of the first element in the array. Since our
example sorts into descending order, the first section will contain all the
elements greater than the first element. The second section will contain
elements less than (or equal to) the first element. It is possible for the first
element to end up in either section.

Let's examine our same example

85
Array at beginning: 84 69 76 86 94 91

= 1st partition 86 94 91 84 69 76

= 2nd partition
94 91 86 84 69 76

94 91 86 84 69 76

94 91 86 84 69 76

Done: 94 91 86 84 76 69
This sort uses recursion - the process of "calling itself". Recursion will be
studied at a later date.

//Quick Sort Functions for Descending Order // (2

Functions)
void main()
{
// top = subscript of beginning of array
// bottom = subscript of end of array

int middle;
if (top < bottom)
{
middle = partition(num, top, bottom);
e
quicksort(num, top, middle); // sort first section
.k o
.c second section
quicksort(num, middle+1, bottom); // sort
es t
} f no
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return; } .p
w
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w

86
//Function to determine the partitions
// partitions the array and returns the middle
subscript int main() {
int x =
array[top]; int i =
top - 1; int j =
bottom + 1; int
temp; do {
do
{
j - -;
}while (x >array[j]);

do
{
i++;
} while (x <array[i]);

if (i<j)
{
temp = array[i];
array[i] = array[j];
array[j] = temp;
}
}while (i< j); return j; // returns
middle subscript }

Merge Sort
The merge sort combines two sorted arrays into one larger sorted
array. As the diagram below shows, Array A and Array B merge to
form Array C.

87
Arrays to be merged MUST be SORTED FIRST!!

Be sure to declare Array C in main( ) and establish its size.

Example: Ascending Order

Array A: {7. 12}
Array B: {5, 7, 8}
e
Array C: {5, 7, 7, 8, 12} after merge
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t es
Here is how it works: The first element o of array A is compared with the first
d fn
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element of array B. If the first element of array A is smaller than the first
w
w
w from array A is moved to the new array C. The
element of array B, the element
subscript of array A is now increased since the first element is now set and we
move on.

If the element from array B should be smaller, it is moved to the new array C.
The subscript of array B is increased. This process of comparing the elements
in the two arrays continues until either array A or array B is empty. When one
array is empty, any elements remaining in the other (non-empty) array are
"pushed" into the end of array C and the merge is complete.

//Function to merge two pre-sorted arrays

void main()
{
int indexA = 0; // initialize variables for the
subscripts int indexB = 0; int indexC = 0;
Int arrayC[5];

while((indexA< 5) && (indexB< 5)

{

if (arrayA[indexA] <arrayB[indexB])
{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayA[indexA];
indexA++; //increase the subscript
}
else

88
 {
arrayC[indexC] = arrayB[indexB]; indexB++;
//increase the subscript }
indexC++; //move to the next position in the new array
}
// Move remaining elements to end of new array when one merging array is empty
while (indexA< 5)
{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayA[indexA];
indexA++;
indexC++;
}
while (indexB< 5)
{
arrayC[indexC] = arrayB[indexB];
indexB++; indexC+
+;
}
return;
}

SEARCHING ARRAYS
e to perform a search or "lookup"
When working with arrays, it is often necessary
.k o
c value that matches a certain key value
to determine whether an array containss.a
o te
The process of locating a particularfnelement value in an array is called
d
.p search mechani[Link] search and
[Link] are two typeswof
w
binary search w

a) Serial Search

The technique used here is called a serial search, because the integer
elements of the array are compared one by one to the user input being looked
for (userValue) until either a match is found or all elements of the array are
examined without finding a match.

In the code below, if a match is found, the text “There is a match” is printed on
the form and the execution of the procedure is terminated (Exit Sub). If no

89
match is found, the program exits the loop and prints the text “No match
found”.
#include <stdio.h>

int main() { int array[5]={10,7,8,2,5}, searchvalue, c;

printf("\tEnter the number to search: "); scanf("%d",
&searchvalue);
for (c = 0; c < 5; c++)
{

if (array[c] == searchvalue) // if required element found

{
printf("\n\t%d is present at location %d.\n", searchvalue, c+1);
break;

if (c == 5)// if looped more than 5 times ie 6 times

printf("\n\t%d is not present in the array.\n", searchvalue); return 0; }

Binary Search
Binary search uses the concept of splitting your searchable array in two, discarding the
half that does not have the element for which you are looking.

You place your items in an array and sort them. Then you simply get the middle
element and test if it is <, >, or = to the element efor which you are searching. If it is
.k
co middle index of the remaining elements
less than, you discard the greater half, get the
s.
te problem in half every time you execute
and do it again. Binary search divides your
no
your loop. df
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w
w
w
#include <stdio.h>
int main() { int c, first, last, middle, n, search, array[100];
printf("Enter number of elements\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter %d integers\n", n);
for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ )
scanf("%d",&array[c]);
printf("Enter value to find\n");
scanf("%d",&search);

90
 first = 0; last = n - 1; middle =
(first+last)/2;
while( first<= last )
{
if ( array[middle] < search ) first = middle + 1;
else if ( array[middle] == search )
{ printf("%d found at location %d.\n", search, middle+1); break; } else
last = middle - 1;
middle = (first + last)/2; } if ( first >
last ) printf("Not found! %d is not
present in the list.\n", search);
return 0; }

LINKED LISTS

A linked list is a dynamic data structure whose length can be increased or

decreased at run time.

How Linked lists are different from arrays? Consider the following points :

• An array is a static data structure. This means the length of array cannot
be altered at run time. While, a linked list is a dynamic data structure.
e
• .k at consecutive memory locations
In an array, all the elements are kept
. co
es (or nodes) may be kept at any location
while in a linked list the elements
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fn
but still connected to each other.
d
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w
w
When to prefer linked lists over
w arrays? Linked lists are preferred mostly when
you don’t know the volume of data to be stored. For example, In an employee
management system, one cannot use arrays as they are of fixed length while
any number of new employees can join. In scenarios like these, linked lists (or
other dynamic data structures) are used as their capacity can be increased (or
decreased) at run time (as an when required).

91
How linked lists are arranged in memory?

Linked list basically consists of memory blocks that are located at random memory
locations. Linked lists are connected through pointers.

POINTERS

A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable,

i.e., direct address of the memory location. Like any variable or constant,
you must declare a pointer before you can use it to store any variable
address. The general form of a pointer variable declaration is: type *var-
name;

Here, type is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C data type and var-
name is the name of the pointer variable. The asterisk * you used to declare a
pointer is the same asterisk that you use for multiplication. However, in this
statement the asterisk is being used to designate a variable as a pointer.
Following are the valid pointer declaration:

int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */

double *dp; /* pointer to a double
*/ float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a
character */

The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether integer, float, character,
or otherwise, is the same, a long hexadecimal number that represents a memory
address. The only difference between pointers of different data types is the data
type of the variable or constant that the pointer points to.

HOW TO USE POINTERS?

There are few important operations, which we will do with the help of pointers
very frequently. (a) we define a pointer variable (b) assign the address of a
variable to a pointer and (c) finally access the
e value at the address available in
o .k
.c unary operator * that returns the
the pointer variable. This is done by using
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w
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value of the variable located at the address specified by its operand. Following
example makes use of these operations:

#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
int var = 20; /* actual variable declaration */
int *ip; /* pointer variable declaration */

ip = &var; /* store address of var in pointer variable*/

printf("Address of var variable: %x\n", &var );

/* address stored in pointer variable */

printf("Address stored in ip variable: %x\n", ip );

/* access the value using the pointer */

printf("Value of *ip variable: %d\n", *ip );

return
0; }

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces result something
as follows:

Address of var variable: bffd8b3c

Address stored in ip variable: bffd8b3c
Value of *ip variable: 20

NULL Pointers in C

It is always a good practice to assign a NULL value to a pointer variable in

case you do not have exact address to be assigned. This is done at the time of
variable declaration. A pointer that is assigned NULL is called a null pointer.

The NULL pointer is a constant with a value of zero defined in several standard
libraries. Consider the following program:

93
#include <stdio.h>

int main ()
{
int *ptr = NULL;

printf("The value of ptr is : %x\n", ptr );

return
0; }

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:

The value of ptr is 0

e
o.k
c
On most of the operating systems, programs
es. are not permitted to access
memory at address 0 because thatnmemory ot is reserved by the operating
d f
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system. However, the memory address 0 has special significance; it signals
w
w
w to point to an accessible memory location. But
that the pointer is not intended
by convention, if a pointer contains the null (zero) value, it is assumed to point
to nothing.

To check for a null pointer you can use an if statement as follows:

if(ptr) /* succeeds if p is not null */ if(!

ptr) /* succeeds if p is null */

C STRINGS
In C, one or more characters enclosed between double quotes is called a
string. C does not have built-in string data type. Instead, C supports strings
using one-dimensional arrays. A string is defined as a null terminated array
i.e. \0. This means that you must define the array that is going to hold a string
to be one byte larger than the largest string it is going to hold, in order to make
room for the null.

94
To read a string from the keyboard, you must use another of C’s standard library
functions, gets( ), which requires the stdio.h header file. The gets ( ) function
reads characters until you presss<ENTER>. The carriage return is not stored,
but it is replaced by a null, wich terminates the string. E.g.

#include<stdio.h>
Main ( )
Char str [80];
Int I;
Printf (ËNter a string: \n”);
gets(str);

for (I = 0; str[i]; i++) printf(“%c”,

str[i]);
}

The following declaration and initialization create a string consisting of the word
"Hello". To hold the null character at the end of the array, the size of the
character array containing the string is one more than the number of characters
in the word "Hello".

char greeting[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};

Initialization of strings

In C, string can be initialized in a different number of ways.

char c[]="abcd"; OR, char

c[5]="abcd"; OR, e
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char c[]={'a','b','c','d','\0'}; c
es.
OR;
ot
char c[5]={'a','b','c','d','\0'}; d fn
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w
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w

95
String can also be initialized using pointers

char *c="abcd";

Reading Strings from user.

Reading words from user.

char c[20]; scanf("%s",c);

String variable c can only take a word. It is beacause when white space is
encountered, the scanf() function terminates.

Write a C program to illustrate how to read string from terminal.

#include <stdio.h> int main(){ char name[20];

printf("Enter name: "); scanf("%s",name);
printf("Your name is %s.",name); return 0; }
Output

Enter name: Dennis Ritchie Your name is

Dennis.

Here, program will ignore Ritchie because, scanf() function takes only string
before the white space.

C supports a wide range of functions that manipulate null-terminated strings:

S.N. Function & Purpose

1 strcpy(s1, s2);
Copies string s2 into string s1.
2 strcat(s1, s2);
Concatenates string s2 onto the end of string
s1.
3 strlen(s1);
Returns the length of string s1.

96
4 strcmp(s1, s2);
Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less
than 0 if s1<s2; greater than 0 if s1>s2.
5 Returns a pointer
to the first
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o occurrence of
s.c
e
not
strchr(s1, ch);
character ch in
d f
.p string s1.
w
w
w
6 strstr(s1, s2);
Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of
string s2 in string s1.

The C library function int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2) compares
the string pointed to by str1 to the string pointed to by str2.

Following is the declaration for strcmp() function.

int strcmp(str1, str2)

PARAMETERS

• str1 -- This is the first string to be compared.

• str2 -- This is the second string to be compared.

RETURN VALUE

This function returned values are as follows:

• if Return value if < 0 then it indicates str1 is less than str2

• if Return value if > 0 then it indicates str2 is less than str1
• if Return value if = 0 then it indicates str1 is equal to str2
Example

The following example shows the usage of strncmp() function.

97
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main () { char
str1[15]; char
str2[15]; int ret;
strcpy(str1, "abcdef"); strcpy(str2,
"ABCDEF");
ret = strcmp(str1, str2);
if(ret > 0) { printf("str1 is less than str2");
} else if(ret < 0)
{ printf("str2 is less than
str1"); k e
co.
} else { printf("str1 is .
t es
equal to str2"); o
d fn
} return(0);
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w
} w
w

More Examples
1)C Program to Find the Length of a String
#include <stdio.h> int main() { char s[1000],i;
printf("Enter a string: "); scanf("%s",s);
for(i=0; s[i]!='\0'; ++i); printf("Length of string:
%d",i); return 0; }

Output

Enter a string: Programiz

Length of string: 9

2)Code to Concatenate Two Strings Manually

#include <stdio.h> int main() { char
s1[100], s2[100], i, j; printf("Enter first
string: "); scanf("%s",s1); printf("Enter
second string: "); scanf("%s",s2);
for(i=0; s1[i]!='\0'; ++i); /* i contains length
of string s1. */ for(j=0; s2[j]!='\0'; ++j, ++i)
{ s1[i]=s2[j];
} s1[i]='\0'; printf("After concatenation: %s",s1);
return 0; }

98
 Output

Enter first string: lol

Enter second string: :)
After concatenation: lol:)

QUEUES e
o.k
c
es.
Queue is a specialized data storage structure (Abstract data type). Unlike
ot
fn is restricted. It has two main operations
arrays, access of elements in a Queue
d
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enqueue and dequeue. Insertionw in a queue is done using enqueue function
w
w
and removal from a queue is done using dequeue function. An item can be
inserted at the end (‘rear’) of the queue and removed from the front (‘front’) of
the queue. It is therefore, also called First-In-First-Out (FIFO) list. Queue has
five properties - capacity stands for the maximum number of elements Queue
can hold, size stands for the current size of the Queue, elements is the array of
elements, front is the index of first element (the index at which we remove the
element) and rear is the index of last element (the index at which we insert the
element).

Primitive operations
a) enqueue (q, x): inserts item x at the rear of the queue q
b) x = dequeue (q): removes the front element from q and returns its value.
c) isEmpty(q) : true if the queue is empty, otherwise false.

Example
enqueue(q, ‘A’);
enqueue(q, ‘B’);
enqueue(q, ‘C’);
x = dequeue(q);
enqueue(q, ‘D’);
enqueue(q, ‘E’);

99
x= dequeue (q) -> x= ‘A’

STACKS
A stack is a data structure that allows adding and removing elements in a particular
order. Every time an element is added, it goes on the top of the stack; the only
e
element that can be removed is the element that
o .k was at the top of the stack.
Consequently, a stack is said to have "first in c last out" behavior (or "last in, first out").
s.
The first item added to a stack will be thetelast item removed from a stack.
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100
CHAPTER 7

FILE HANDLING
This chapter explains how C programmers can create, open and close text or
binary files for their data storage.A file represents a sequence of bytes, does not
matter if it is a text file or binary file.

OPENING FILES

You can use the fopen( ) function to create a new file or to open an existing file,
this call will initialize an object of the type FILE, which contains all the information
necessary to control the stream. Following is the prototype of this function call:

FILE *fopen( const char * filename, const char * mode );

e to name your file and access

Here, filename is string literal, which you willkuse
co.
mode can have one of the following values: .
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f no
d
Mode Description r Opens .p an existing text
w
file for reading purpose. w
w
Opens a text file for writing, if it does not exist then a new file is created.
Here w your program will start writing content from the beginning of the file.

Opens a text file for writing in appending mode, if it does not exist then a
new file a is created. Here your program will start appending content in the
existing file content.

r+ Opens a text file for reading and writing both.

Opens a text file for reading and writing both. It first truncate the file to
zero w+ length if it exists otherwise create the file if it does not exist.

Opens a text file for reading and writing both. It creates the file if it does not
exist. a+
The reading will start from the beginning but writing can only be appended.

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If you are going to handle binary files then you will use below mentioned access
modes instead of the above mentioned:

"rb", "wb", "ab", "ab+", "a+b", "wb+", "w+b", "ab+", "a+b" CLOSING A FILE
To close a file, use the fclose( ) function. The prototype of this function is:

int fclose( FILE *fp );

The fclose( ) function returns zero on success, or EOF if there is an error in
closing the file. This function actually, flushes any data still pending in the buffer to
the file, closes the file, and releases any memory used for the file. The EOF is a
constant defined in the header file stdio.h.

There are various functions provide by C standard library to read and write a file
character by character or in the form of a fixed length string. Let us see few of the
in the next section.

WRITING A FILE

Following is the simplest function to write individual characters to a stream:

int fputc( int c, FILE *fp );

The function fputc() writes the character value of the argument c to the output
stream referenced by fp. It returns the written echaracter written on success
o .k
.c use the following functions to write a
otherwise EOF if there is an error. You can
s
null-terminated string to a stream: ote
d fn
.p
int fputs( const char *s, FILE *fp ); w
w
w
The function fputs() writes the string s to the output stream referenced by fp. It
returns a non-negative value on success, otherwise EOF is returned in case of
any error. You can use int fprintf(FILE *fp,const char *format, ...) function as
well to write a string into a file. Try the following example:

#include <stdio.h>
main()

102
{
FILE *fp;

fp = fopen("/tmp/[Link]", "w+"); fprintf(fp, "This is testing for fprintf...\

n"); fputs("This is testing for fputs...\n", fp); fclose(fp); }

When the above code is compiled and executed, it creates a new file [Link] in
/tmp directory and writes two lines using two different functions. Let us read this
file in next section.

READING A FILE

Following is the simplest function to read a single character from a file:

int fgetc( FILE * fp );

The fgetc() function reads a character from the input file referenced by fp. The
return value is the character read, or in case of any error it returns EOF. The
following functions allow you to read a string from a stream:

char *fgets( char *buf, int n, FILE *fp );

The functions fgets() reads up to n - 1 characters from the input stream

referenced by fp. It copies the read string into the buffer buf, appending a null
character to terminate the string.

If this function encounters a newline character '\n' or the end of the file EOF before
they have read the maximum number of characters, then it returns only the
characters read up to that point including new line character. You can also use int
fscanf(FILE *fp, const char *format, ...) function
to read strings from a file but it stops reading after
k e
the first space character
co. encounters.
.
#include <stdio.h> t es
o
main() d fn
.p
{ w
w
FILE *fp; char buff[255]; w

103
fp = fopen("/tmp/[Link]", "r"); fscanf(fp, "%s",
buff); printf("1 : %s\n", buff );
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp); printf("2: %s\
n", buff );
fgets(buff, 255, (FILE*)fp); printf("3: %s\
n", buff ); fclose(fp);

When the above code is compiled and executed, it reads the file created in
previous section and produces the following result:

1 : This
2: is testing for fprintf...

3: This is testing for fputs...

Let's see a little more detail about what happened here. First fscanf() method read
just This because after that it encountered a space, second call is for fgets()
which read the remaining line till it encountered end of line. Finally last call fgets()
read second line completely.

BINARY I/O FUNCTIONS

There are following two functions, which can be used for binary input and output:

size_tfread(void *ptr, size_tsize_of_elements,

size_tnumber_of_elements, FILE *a_file);

size_tfwrite(const void *ptr, size_tsize_of_elements,

size_tnumber_of_elements, FILE *a_file);

Both of these functions should be used to read or write blocks of memories -

usually arrays or structures.

104
 k e
co.
.
t es
o
d fn
.p
w
w
w
Chapter 8

SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION
Software documentation is written text that accompanies computer software. It
both explains how the software operates or how to use it and may mean different
things to people in different roles.
Importance of software documentation
1. Provide for communication among team members
2. They should provide information for management to help them plan, budget
and schedule the software development process.
3. It acts as an information repository to be used by maintenance engineers
4. Describe to users how to operate and administer the system
5. In all software projects some amount of documentation should be created
prior to any code being written for example Design docs, etc.
e
.k code has been completed for
6. Documentation should continue after the
o
example User’s manuals, etc. s.c
ote
d fn
.p
w
w
w
The two main types of documentation created are Process and Product
documents

PROCESS DOCUMENTATION
(a) Used to record and track the development process

105
 Planning documentation
Cost, Schedule, Funding tracking
Schedules
Standards e.t.c.
(b) This documentation is created to allow for successful management of a
software product
(c) Has a relatively short lifespan
(d) Only important to internal development process
(e) Except in cases where the customer requires a view into this data
(f) Some items, such as papers that describe design decisions should be
extracted and moved into the product documentation category when they
become implemented

PRODUCT DOCUMENTATION
Describes the delivered product
Must evolve with the development of the software product
There are two main categories of process documentation:

[Link] Documentation
This describes how the system works, but not how to operate it
Examples:
Requirements Spec
Architectural Design
Detailed Design
Commented Source Code
Including output such as JavaDoc
Test Plans
Including test cases
V&V plan and results
List of Known Bugs

106
[Link] Documentation
User Documentation has two main types
End User
System Administrator
In some cases these are the same people. The target audience must be well
understood. There are five important areas that should be documented for a
formal release of a software application. These do not necessarily each have to
have their own document, but the topics should
e be covered thoroughly. These
k
include: co.
es.
ot
Functional Description of the Software
d fn
Installation Instructions .p
w
Introductory Manual w
w
Reference Manual
System Administrator’s Guide

Document Quality
Providing thorough and professional documentation is important for any size
product development team
Document Structure
All documents for a given product should have a similar
structure The authors “best practices” are: Put a cover page
on all documents
Divide documents into chapters with sections and subsections
Add an index if there is lots of reference information
Add a glossary to define ambiguous terms

107