October 9

Physics for Scientists and

Engineers, 11e
Chapter 7: Energy of a System

Serway | Jewett | Peroomian, Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, 11th Edition. © 2026 Cengage Learning, Inc. All
Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

1
 Storyline
Chapter 7:
Energy of a System

Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 10e

Raymond A. Serway
John W. Jewett, Jr.
 Systems and Environments
Valid systems:

• may be a single object or particle

• may be a collection of objects or particles
• may be a region of space (such as the interior of an
automobile engine combustion cylinder)
• may vary with time in size and shape (such as a
rubber ball, which deforms upon striking a wall)
 Work Done by a Constant Force

𝑊𝐹 ≡ 𝐹∆𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹Ԧ ∙ ∆𝑟Ԧ

Work Done by a Constant Force

𝑊𝐹 ≡ 𝐹Δ𝑟 cos 𝜃

for  =   W = F r

N  m  J ( joule ) = kg  m 2 /s 2
 Quick Quiz 7.1
The gravitational force exerted by the Sun on the Earth holds the Earth in
an orbit around the Sun. Let us assume that the orbit is perfectly circular.
The work done by this gravitational force during a short time interval in
which the Earth moves through a displacement in its orbital path is
(a) zero
(b) positive
(c) negative
(d) impossible to determine

(a)
 Quick Quiz 7.2

The figure shows four situations in

which a force is applied to an object.
In all four cases, the force has the
same magnitude, and the
displacement of the object is to the
right and of the same magnitude.
Rank the situations in order of the
work done by the force on the
object, from most positive to most
negative.
(c), (a), (d), (b)
 Example 7.1:
Mr. Clean
A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum cleaner with a force of
magnitude F = 50.0 N at an angle of 30.0 with the horizontal.
Calculate the work done by the force on the vacuum cleaner as the
vacuum cleaner is displaced 3.00 m to the right.

W = F r cos 
= ( 50.0 N )( 3.00 m )( cos 30.0 )
= 130 J
 Work Done by a Varying Force

∆𝑊 ≈ 𝐹𝑥 ∆𝑥
xf

W   Fx x
xi
xf

lim  Fx x =  Fx dx
xf

x → 0 xi
xi

xf
W =  Fx dx
xi

= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

 Example 7.4:
Calculating Total Work Done from a Graph
A force acting on a particle varies with x as shown in the figure. Calculate the work done by the
force on the particle as it moves from x = 0 to x = 6.0 m.
Work Done by a Varying Force

𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘෠

𝑑𝑟Ԧ = 𝑑𝑥𝑖Ƹ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘෠

𝑟Ԧ𝑓
𝑊 = න 𝐹Ԧ ∙ 𝑑𝑟Ԧ
𝑟Ԧ𝑖
 Work done by an elastic spring

Hooke’s law (ideal spring):

Fs = −kx

k (in N/m):
o Force constant
o Hooke’s law constant
o Spring constant
o Stiffness constant
 Work done by and on a spring
• Force exerted by a spring:
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥

• Work done by the spring: 𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 1 2 1 2

𝑊𝑠 = න 𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑘 න 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖 − 𝑘𝑥𝑓
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 2 2

• Force exerted on a spring:

𝐹Ԧ𝑒𝑥𝑡 = −𝐹Ԧ𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖Ƹ

• Work done on a spring: 𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓

1 2 1 2
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = න 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 න 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑓 − 𝑘𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 2 2

= −𝑊𝑠
 Quick Quiz 7.4
A dart is inserted into a spring-loaded dart gun by pushing the spring in by
a distance x. For the next loading, the spring is compressed a distance 2x.
How much work is required to load the second dart compared with that
required to load the first?
(a) four times as much
(b) two times as much
(c) the same
(d) half as much
(e) one-fourth as much

(a)
 Example 7.5:
Measuring k for a Spring
A common technique used to measure the force constant of a spring is demonstrated by the setup
in the figure. The spring is hung vertically, and an object of mass m is attached to its lower end.
Under the action of the “load” mg, the spring stretches a distance d from its equilibrium position.
(A) If a spring is stretched 2.0 cm by a suspended object having a mass of 0.55 kg,
what is the force constant of the spring?

(B) How much work is done by the spring on the object as

it stretches through this distance?
 Kinetic Energy and
the Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓 𝑣𝑓
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 = න 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 න 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚 න 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚 න 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑥𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑖

1 1
Wext = mv f − mvi 2
2

2 2

1 2
Kinetic energy: K  mv
2

Wext = K f − K i = K
 Kinetic Energy and
the Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem
Wext = K f − K i = K

When work is done on a system and the only change

in the system is in the speed of its members, the net
work done on the system equals the change in
kinetic energy of the system: Wnet = K.

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊𝐹1 + 𝑊𝐹2 + ⋯

 Quick Quiz 7.5
A dart is inserted into a spring-loaded dart gun by pushing the spring in by
a distance x. For the next loading, the spring is compressed a distance 2x.
How much faster does the second dart leave the gun compared with the
first?
(a) four times as fast
(b) two times as fast
(c) the same
(d) half as fast
(e) one-fourth as fast

(b)
 Example 7.6:
A Block Pulled on a Frictionless Surface
A 6-kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right along a
frictionless, horizontal surface by a constant horizontal force of
magnitude 12 N. Find the block’s speed after it has moved through
a horizontal distance of 3 m.

Suppose the magnitude of the force in this example is doubled to F = 2F. The 6-kg block
accelerates to 3.5 m/s due to this applied force while moving through a displacement x. How
does the displacement x compare with the original displacement x?
October 12
 Conceptual Example 7.7:
Does the Ramp Lesson the Work Required?
A man wishes to load a refrigerator onto a truck using a ramp at angle  as shown in
the figure. He claims that less work would be required to load the truck if the
length L of the ramp were increased so that the angle  would be smaller. Is his
claim valid?
No!
 Potential Energy of a System
Work done by gravity:

𝑊𝑔 = 𝐹Ԧ𝑔 ∙ Δ𝑟Ԧ

= −𝑚𝑔𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 𝑗Ƹ

= − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖

≡ −∆𝑈𝑔

Gravitational potential energy function:

Ug(y) ≡ mgy

∆𝑈𝑔 = −𝑊𝑔 = 𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝

October 14
 Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy depends only on vertical height of object above surface of Earth

𝑊𝑔 = න 𝐹Ԧ𝑔 ∙ 𝑑 𝑟Ԧ
𝑦𝑓

= −𝑚𝑔 𝑗Ƹ ∙ න 𝑖𝑑𝑥
Ƹ + 𝑗𝑑𝑦
Ƹ ∆𝑟Ԧ
𝑦𝑓 𝑦𝑖
= −𝑚𝑔 න 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑖

= − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑓

≡ −∆𝑈𝑔 , with 𝑈𝑔 ≡ 𝑚𝑔𝑦

 Quick Quiz 7.6
Choose the correct answer. The gravitational potential energy of a system
(a) is always positive
(b) is always negative
(c) can be negative or positive

(c)
 Elastic Potential Energy
Work done by the spring:
1 2 1 2
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥𝑖 − 𝑘𝑥𝑓
2 2

1 2 1 2
= − 𝑘𝑥𝑓 − 𝑘𝑥𝑖
2 2
1 2
= −∆𝑈𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ: 𝑈𝑠 ≡ 𝑘𝑥
2

Elastic potential energy Us(x) is a function such that:

∆𝑈𝑠 = −𝑊𝑠
 Quick Quiz 7.7 Part I
A ball is connected to a light spring suspended vertically as
shown in the figure. When pulled downward from its
equilibrium position and released, the ball oscillates up and
down.
In the system of the ball, the spring, and the Earth, what
forms of energy are there during the motion?

(a) kinetic and elastic potential

(b) kinetic and gravitational potential
(c) kinetic, elastic potential, and gravitational (c)
potential
(d) elastic potential and gravitational potential
 Quick Quiz 7.7 Part II
A ball is connected to a light spring suspended vertically as
shown in the figure. When pulled downward from its
equilibrium position and released, the ball oscillates up and
down.
In the system of the ball and the spring, what forms of
energy are there during the motion?

(a) kinetic and elastic potential

(b) kinetic and gravitational potential
(c) kinetic, elastic potential, and gravitational potential
(d) elastic potential and gravitational potential
(a)
Energy Bar Charts
 Review
• Kinetic energy:
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

• Gravitational potential energy:

𝑈𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦

• Elastic potential energy:

1 2
𝑈𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥
2

• Work-kinetic-enrgy theorem:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Δ𝐾
 Conservative Forces
• Work done by a conservative force on a particle moving
between any two points is independent of the path taken by
𝑓
the particle.
Wg = −mgˆj  ( y f − yi ) ˆj = mgyi − mgy f

1 2 1
Ws = kxi − kx f 2
2 2
𝑖
• Work done by a conservative force on a particle moving
through any closed path is zero.
 Generalization

To every conservative force 𝐹Ԧ corresponds

a potential energy function U, such that:

∆𝑈 = −𝑊𝐹
Non-conservative Forces
 Internal Energy (Heat)

• Work done by the force of kinetic friction is:

𝑊𝑓𝑘 = −𝑓𝑘 ∆𝑥

• By analogy with 𝑈 (potential energy)

associated with a conservative force, associate
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 (internal energy = thermal energy) with
the force of kinetic friction, such that:

∆𝐸𝑡ℎ = −𝑊𝑓𝑘 = 𝑓𝑘 ∆𝑥
 Relationship Between Conservative
Forces and Potential Energy
𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖 = ∆𝑈 = −𝑊𝐹𝑥
𝑈𝑓 𝑥𝑓
න 𝑑𝑈 = න −𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑈𝑖 𝑥𝑖

⇒ 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑈
⇒ 𝐹𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥

Generalization: the conservative force 𝐹Ԧ associated with the potential energy function
𝑈 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 has the components:
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝐹𝑥 = − , 𝐹𝑦 = − , 𝐹𝑧 = − (Partial derivatives)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Quick Quiz 7.8

What does the slope of a graph of U(x) versus x represent?

(a) The magnitude of the force on the object
(b) the negative of the magnitude of the force on the object
(c) the x component of the force on the object
(d) the negative of the x component of the force on the object

(d)
Energy Diagrams and Equilibrium of a System

• Elastic potential energy:

1 2 𝑑𝑈𝑠
𝑈𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 ⟹ − = −𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑠
2 𝑑𝑥

• Hence, 𝑥 = 0 is a point of stable equilibrium.

• Similarly, the gravitational potential energy:

𝑑𝑈𝑔
𝑈𝑔 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦 ⟹ − = −𝑚𝑔 = 𝐹𝑔
𝑑𝑥
Unstable Equilibrium

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

 Problem 7.16
The force acting on a particle is 𝐹𝑥 = 8𝑥 − 16, where 𝐹𝑥 is in newtons and x is in meters.
a) Make a plot of this force versus x from x = 0 to x = 3 m.
b) From your graph, find the net work done by this force on the particle as it moves from
x = 0 to x = 3 m. 12 J
3
𝑊 = න 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
(3,8)
3
3
= න 8𝑥 − 16 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 0
0

= −12 𝐽 −16
 Problem 7.27
Review. A 5.75-kg object passes through the origin at time t = 0 such that its x- component of
velocity is 5 m/s and its y- component of velocity is -3 m/s.
a) What is the kinetic energy of the object at this time? 97.8 J
b) At a later time, t = 2 s, the particle is located at x = 8.5 m and y = 5 m. What constant force
acted on the object during this time interval? 𝐹Ԧ = −4.31𝑖Ƹ + 31.6𝑗Ƹ N
c) What is the speed of the particle at t = 2 s? 8.73 m/s
1 1
a) K = 𝑚𝑣0 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥20 + 𝑣𝑦20 = 97.8 𝐽
2
2 2
1
Ԧ 2
b) Since the force is a constant, 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ0 + 𝑣Ԧ0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
2 𝑟Ԧ − 𝑣Ԧ0 𝑡 2
𝑎Ԧ = 2
= −0.75𝑖+5.5
Ƹ 𝑗 Ƹ m/𝑠 ⟹ 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ = −4.31𝑖Ƹ + 31.6𝑗Ƹ N
𝑡
𝑐) 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣Ԧ0 + 𝑎𝑡
Ԧ = 5𝑖Ƹ − 3𝑗Ƹ + 2 −0.75𝑖+5.5𝑗Ƹ
Ƹ = 3.5𝑖Ƹ + 8𝑗Ƹ m/s
𝑣= 3.5 2 + 8 2 = 8.73 𝑚/𝑠
 Problem 7.29
A 0.2-kg stone is held 1.3 m above the top edge of a water well and then dropped into it. The well
has a depth of 5 m. Relative to the configuration with the stone at the top edge of the well, what is
the gravitational potential energy of the stone–Earth system
a) before the stone is released and 2.55 J
b) when it reaches the bottom of the well? -9.8 J
c) What is the change in gravitational potential energy of the system from release to reaching the
bottom of the well? -12.4 J
𝑦
𝑎) 𝑈𝑔𝑖 = 𝑚𝑔𝑎 = 0.2 9.8 1.3 = 2.55 𝐽
𝑎
b) 𝑈𝑔𝑓 = 𝑚𝑔 −𝑏 = 0.2 9.8 −5 = −9.8 𝐽 𝑥

𝑏
c) ∆𝑈𝑔 = 𝑈𝑔𝑓 − 𝑈𝑔𝑖 = −9.8 − 2.55 = −12.4 𝐽
 Problem 7.33
A force acting on a particle moving in the xy plane is given by 𝐹Ԧ = 2𝑦𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 2 𝑗Ƹ , where 𝐹Ԧ is in
newtons and x and y are in meters. The particle moves from the origin to a final position having
coordinates 𝑥 = 5 𝑚 and y = 5 𝑚 as shown. Calculate the work done by 𝐹Ԧ on the particle as it
moves along (a) the purple path, (b) the red path, and
𝑎) 𝑊𝑂𝐴𝐶 = 𝑊𝑂𝐴 + 𝑊𝐴𝐶 ,
𝐴 5
𝑊𝑂𝐴 = න 2𝑦𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 2 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑖𝑑𝑥
Ƹ = 2𝑦 න 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (𝑦 = 0)
𝑂 0
𝐶 5
𝑊𝐴𝐶 = න 2𝑦𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 2 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑗𝑑𝑦
Ƹ = 𝑥 2 න 𝑑𝑦 = 125 𝐽 (𝑥 = 5 𝑚) ⟹ 𝑊𝑂𝐴𝐶 = 125 𝐽
𝐴 0
𝐵 5
𝑏) 𝑊𝑂𝐵𝐶 = 𝑊𝑂𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵𝐶 , 𝑊𝑂𝐵 = න 2𝑦𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 2 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑗𝑑𝑦
Ƹ = 𝑥 2 න 𝑑𝑦 = 0 (𝑥 = 0)
𝑂 0
𝐶 5
𝑊𝐵𝐶 = න 2𝑦 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 2𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑖𝑑𝑥
Ƹ = 2𝑦 න 𝑑𝑥 = 50 (𝑦 = 5 𝑚) ⟹ 𝑊𝑂𝐵𝐶 = 50 𝐽
𝐵 0
October 16
 Problem 7.33
A force acting on a particle moving in the xy plane is given by 𝐹Ԧ = 2𝑦𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 2 𝑗Ƹ , where 𝐹Ԧ is in
newtons and x and y are in meters. The particle moves from the origin to a final position having
coordinates 𝑥 = 5 𝑚 and y = 5 𝑚 as shown. Calculate the work done by 𝐹Ԧ on the particle as it
moves along (c) the blue path.
d) Is 𝐹Ԧ conservative or nonconservative?
e) Explain your answer to part (d).
𝐶 5 5 2
c) 𝑊𝑂𝐶 = ‫𝑂׬‬ 2
2𝑦𝑖Ƹ + 𝑥 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 𝑖𝑑𝑥
Ƹ + 𝑗𝑑𝑦
Ƹ = 2 ‫׬‬0 𝑦𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
5 5
= 2 න 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 (𝑦 = 𝑥)
0 0

= 25 + 125/3 = 200/3 J
d) The force is non-conservative. 𝑦=𝑥
e) W is path-dependent.
 Problem 7.36
A potential energy function for a system in which a two-dimensional force acts is of
the form U 𝑥, 𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 𝑦 − 7𝑥. Find the force that acts at the point (𝑥, 𝑦).

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝐹Ԧ 𝑥, 𝑦 = − 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= − 9𝑥 2 𝑦 − 7 𝑖Ƹ − 3𝑥 3 𝑗Ƹ

Examples:
𝐹Ԧ 0,0 =

𝐹Ԧ 1,1 =

𝐹Ԧ 2, −1 =
 Problem 7.38
For the potential energy curve shown,
a) determine whether the force 𝐹𝑥 is positive, negative, or zero at the five points indicated.
b) Indicate points of stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium.
c) Sketch the curve for 𝐹𝑥 versus 𝑥 from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 9.5 𝑚.

a) Positive: B; Negative: D; 0: A, C and E.

b) Stable: C; Unstable: A and E; Neutral: none.
c) See figure below.