Important Questions

Question 1: Explain what is meant by: (a) active instruments (b) passive
instruments. Give examples of each and discuss the relative merits of
these two classes of instruments.
Answers-

(a) Active Instruments

Definition:
An active instrument is one in which the output is produced by an external power source, and the
measured quantity modulates (controls) the magnitude of this external energy to produce a
readable output.

In simpler words, the measured quantity does not directly supply the energy needed to produce the
output signal — instead, it controls the energy taken from another source such as electrical,
pneumatic, or hydraulic power.

Example:
A float-type petrol tank level indicator is a good example.

(b) Passive Instruments

Definition:
A passive instrument is one in which the output is entirely produced by the measured quantity
itself — no external power source is needed.
The energy for producing the output reading comes directly from the measured system.

Example:
A simple pressure gauge (like a Bourdon tube or piston-type gauge) is a passive instrument.
Relative Merits of Active and Passive Instruments

Active instruments offer higher measurement resolution and sensitivity, as their output can
be amplified using external power. They are suitable for automatic control and remote
sensing applications but are more complex and costly.

Passive instruments, on the other hand, are simpler, cheaper, and self-powered, but their
measurement resolution and flexibility are limited compared to active types.
 Question 2- Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of null and
deflection types of measuring instrument. What are null types of
instruments mainly used for and why?
Answers:
1. Null-Type Measuring Instrument
Definition:
A null-type instrument measures a physical quantity by balancing it against a
known value until a zero (null) deflection is achieved.
At the null point, no movement or deflection occurs, and the measured
quantity is determined from the known balancing quantity rather than from
the deflection of a pointer.
e.g., Dead-weight pressure gauge

Advantages:
 Provides high accuracy, since measurement depends on a precisely known
standard (e.g., weights or voltage).
 Insensitive to small mechanical imperfections, as readings are taken at the
balanced (zero) position.
 High sensitivity, because even a small deviation from the null point can be
detected easily.

Disadvantages:
 Time-consuming, as manual balancing is required to reach the null point.
 Not suitable for dynamic or rapidly changing measurements.
  Bulky and complex, often requiring additional balancing mechanisms.

Applications:
 Used mainly in calibration laboratories and standardization work, where high
accuracy is essential.
 Commonly employed in dead-weight pressure gauges and Wheatstone bridge
circuits.

2. Deflection-Type Measuring Instrument

Definition:
A deflection-type instrument measures a physical quantity by the amount of
movement (deflection) of its pointer or indicator, which is directly proportional
to the measured quantity.
The output is obtained from the extent of deflection, not from a balance
condition.
Ex- Spring type Pressure Gauge

Advantages:
 Quick and easy to use, providing an instantaneous reading.
 Convenient for continuous and dynamic measurements.
  Compact and simple in design, ideal for industrial applications.

Disadvantages:
 Less accurate, as readings depend on the elastic and calibration
characteristics of mechanical elements.
 Affected by friction, wear, and vibration, leading to reading errors.
 Requires frequent recalibration to maintain accuracy.

Applications:
 Widely used in industrial instruments for routine measurement and process
monitoring.
 Typical examples include spring pressure gauges, ammeters, and voltmeters.
 Question 3-What are static Characteristics of a measuring
Instrument? Briefly define and explain all the static characteristics
of measuring instruments.
Answer-
Static Characteristics of Measuring Instruments

The static characteristics of an instrument are those characteristics

that describe its performance under steady (non-changing)
conditions of the measurand.
They indicate how accurately and reliably an instrument measures a
constant input signal.

1. Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement Uncertainty)

 Accuracy is the degree of closeness of the measured value to the true value of
the quantity.
 Inaccuracy (or measurement uncertainty) is the maximum possible error and
is often expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
Example: ±1% f.s. on a 0–10 bar pressure gauge means ±0.1 bar possible error.

2. Precision / Repeatability / Reproducibility

 Precision refers to the degree of freedom from random errors; it shows how
closely repeated measurements agree.
 Repeatability is the closeness of readings under identical conditions over a
short time.
 Reproducibility is the closeness of readings under different conditions
(observer, instrument, time, etc.).
High precision does not always mean high accuracy — an instrument can be
precise but biased.

3. Tolerance
 It defines the maximum permissible deviation of a quantity from its specified
value.
 Often used in manufacturing rather than direct measurement.
Example: A resistor of 1000 Ω ±5% may actually lie between 950 Ω and 1050
Ω.

4. Range or Span
 It is the minimum and maximum values that an instrument is designed to
measure.
Example: A thermometer with a scale from 0°C to 100°C has a range of 100°C.

5. Linearity
 Describes how closely the instrument output follows a straight-line
relationship with the measurand.
 Non-linearity is the maximum deviation of the actual output curve from the
ideal straight line, expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.

6. Sensitivity of Measurement
 It is the ratio of change in output to the change in input that causes it.
Sensitivity = (Scale deflection) / (Change in measurand)
 It represents the slope of the calibration curve.

7. Threshold
 The minimum input value required to cause a detectable change in the output.
Example: A car speedometer may not show any reading until the car exceeds
15 km/h.

8. Resolution
 The smallest change in the input that produces a detectable change in the
output reading.
Example: A speedometer with 20 km/h divisions has a resolution of about 5
km/h.
 9. Sensitivity to Disturbance
 The degree to which the instrument’s output changes due to external
environmental variations (like temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.).
 Two main types:
o Zero Drift (Bias): Entire calibration curve shifts up or down; affects all
readings equally.
o Sensitivity Drift (Scale Factor Drift): The slope of the calibration
curve changes; output changes more or less per unit input.

Question 4: Explain the difference between accuracy and precision

in an instrument.
Answer:
Accuracy – Definition:
Accuracy is the degree of closeness of a measured value to the true
or actual value of the quantity being measured.
It shows how correct a measurement is.
Example: If the true pressure is 100 bar and the instrument shows
99.8 bar, it is highly accurate.

Precision – Definition:
Precision indicates the degree of freedom from random errors;
that is, how closely repeated measurements agree with each other
under unchanged conditions.
It shows how consistent the measurements are, not how correct they
are.
Example: If three readings are 98.2, 98.3, and 98.4 bar for a true
value of 100 bar, the instrument is precise but not accurate.