Switchgear and Power System Protection

Comprehensive Past Year Questions and Class Notes Solution Guide

Power System Protection Engineering

Contents
1 Fundamentals of Distance Protection and Relay Architecture 1
1.1 Distance Protection vs. Overcurrent Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Phase Fault vs. Ground Fault Relay Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Three-Zone Protection and Zone 1 Underreach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 In-feed and Out-feed Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Three-Zone Settings Numerical Problem (100km Line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Arc Resistance and Relay Locus Analysis 4

2.1 Arc Resistance Impact: (2.5 + j6) Ω line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Arc Resistance Impact: (3.6 + j6) Ω line variant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Need for Mho Starter Unit with Reactance Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Power Swings, Load Encroachment, and Relay Characteristics 6

3.1 Power Swing Trajectory and Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Apparent Impedance in Two-Area System & Electric Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Load Encroachment and Quadrilateral Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Numerical Relays, Signal Processing, and Phasor Estimation 8

4.1 Numerical Relay Architecture and Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Phasor Estimation using Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Full Cycle vs Half Cycle DFT on a Composite Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1 Fundamentals of Distance Protection and Relay Architecture

1.1 Distance Protection vs. Overcurrent Protection
Question Statement: What are the advantages of distance protection compared to over-current
protection? In what way is distance protection superior?

Solution: Overcurrent protection relies solely on the magnitude of the fault current. How-
ever, in heavily meshed networks, this scheme faces severe limitations, making distance protec-
tion fundamentally superior:

- Immunity to Source Impedance Variations: Fault current magnitudes fluctuate dramat-

ically based on the network’s dynamic switching states and generation levels. Distance
relays measure the ratio of voltage to current (Z = V /I). Because both V and I decrease
proportionally during a fault, the measured impedance to the fault remains constant re-
gardless of the source generation capacity.

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 - Superior Selectivity and Speed: Overcurrent relays rely on Time Multiplier Settings (TMS)
for grading, which inherently delays the tripping of relays closer to the source. Distance
relays utilize spatial zoning, allowing for instantaneous clearing of faults in the primary
zone (Zone 1) independent of the relay’s position in the broader grid.

- High Load vs. Minimum Fault Current Discrimination: On Extra High Voltage (EHV)
lines, the minimum fault current (e.g., a resistive remote fault) can actually be lower than
the maximum full-load continuous current. Overcurrent relays cannot distinguish be-
tween these states. Distance relays easily differentiate them by evaluating the phase angle
along with the magnitude, recognizing the high active power factor of a normal load ver-
sus the highly reactive nature of a line fault.

1.2 Phase Fault vs. Ground Fault Relay Combinations

Class Note Extension: Distance Protection: Phase Relay and Ground Relay

Solution: Distance relays must precisely measure the positive sequence impedance to the
fault. To ensure the reach does not shift depending on the type of fault, specific voltage and
current combinations are applied:

- Phase-to-Phase Faults (Phase Relays): The relay elements are supplied with delta volt-
ages and delta currents.

- Element 1: Voltage Va − Vb , Current Ia − Ib (Detects A-B faults)

- Element 2: Voltage Vb − Vc , Current Ib − Ic (Detects B-C faults)
- Element 3: Voltage Vc − Va , Current Ic − Ia (Detects C-A faults)

- Phase-to-Ground Faults (Ground Relays): The relay elements are supplied with star (phase)
voltages and phase currents, heavily compensated by the residual current (I0 ) to account
for the zero-sequence impedance of the earth return path.

- Element 4: Voltage Va , Current Ia + kI0 (Detects A-G faults)

- Element 5: Voltage Vb , Current Ib + kI0 (Detects B-G faults)
- Element 6: Voltage Vc , Current Ic + kI0 (Detects C-G faults)

where k is the zero-sequence compensation factor: k = (Z0 − Z1 )/(3Z1 ).

1.3 Three-Zone Protection and Zone 1 Underreach

Question Statement: Briefly state the concept of three-zone settings of the distance relay and
explain how it can provide both primary and backup protection. Why is the Zone 1 protection
always set below 100% of the line length?

Solution: Distance relays provide both instantaneous primary defense and time-delayed
remote backup through staggered spatial zones:

- Zone 1 (Primary): Set to 80%–90% of the protected line. It operates instantaneously (no
intentional time delay, typically 20–40 ms).

- Zone 2 (Local Backup/Overlap): Set to 100% of the protected line plus 20%–50% of the
shortest adjacent line (typically 120% of the principal line). It operates with a time delay
(∼ 0.3s) to allow the remote end’s Zone 1 to act first.

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 - Zone 3 (Remote Backup): Set to cover the primary line plus 100% of the longest adjacent
line, with an additional 20% safety margin. It operates with a larger time delay (∼ 0.6s to
1.0s).

Why Zone 1 is set below 100%: If Zone 1 were set to exactly 100%, the relay would suffer
from “overreaching” due to systemic measurement errors, causing false instantaneous trips
for faults on the adjacent line busbar. These errors stem from: 1. Transient ratio and phase
angle errors in Current and Voltage Transformers (CTs/VTs). 2. The presence of exponentially
decaying DC offset in the fault current. 3. Errors in the physical estimation of the line impedance
parameters (Z1 ). 4. Transient calculation errors in the digital filtering algorithms during the
first cycle. Therefore, capping Zone 1 at 80% provides a crucial safety margin ensuring absolute
spatial security.

1.4 In-feed and Out-feed Effects

Question Statement: What is meant by in-feed and out-feed effect? How will it affect the per-
formance of the distance relay?

Solution: Distance relays assume the current they measure is the exact current flowing at
the fault location. Tapped lines or multi-terminal networks violate this.
In-feed Effect: Occurs when a secondary generation source injects fault current into the
line at an intermediate point between the relay and the fault.

- Mechanism: The current from the in-feed source increases the voltage drop across the line
segment beyond the tapping point.
 
I eed
- Mathematical Impact: Apparent impedance Zseen = Zlocal + Zremote 1 + Iinf
local
.

- Performance Consequence: The impedance is artificially inflated. The relay perceives the
fault as being further away than its physical location, causing dangerous underreach. A
Zone 1 fault might be falsely seen in Zone 2, delaying the trip.

Out-feed Effect: Occurs when a tapped load or parallel path draws current away from the
primary fault loop before the fault point.

- Mechanism: Current leaves the line, meaning the current causing the voltage drop is less
than the current measured at the relay.
 
I
- Mathematical Impact: Apparent impedance Zseen = Zlocal + Zremote 1 − outf eed
Ilocal .

- Performance Consequence: The impedance is artificially reduced. The relay perceives the
fault as being closer, causing overreach. A Zone 2 fault might falsely trigger an instanta-
neous Zone 1 trip.

1.5 Three-Zone Settings Numerical Problem (100km Line)

Question Statement: A MHO relay is located at point R. Each section has the equal length of
100 km with impedance of (1 + j1.7) Ω/km. What would be the three-zone of distance and time
settings of the relay?

Solution: Given: Line Length = 100 km. Distributed Impedance = 1 + j1.7 Ω/km. Total phys-
ical impedance of the principal line (Z1 ) and adjacent line (Z2 ):

Z1 = Z2 = 100 × (1 + j1.7) = 100 + j170 Ω

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 Zone 1 Setting: Set to 80% of the primary line.

ZZ1 = 0.8 × Z1 = 0.8 × (100 + j170) = 80 + j136 Ω

Time Delay: Instantaneous (no intentional delay, ∼ 0 seconds).

Zone 2 Setting: Set to 120% of the primary line (100% of Line 1 + 20% of Line 2).

ZZ2 = 1.2 × Z1 = 1.2 × (100 + j170) = 120 + j204 Ω

Time Delay: 0.3 to 0.5 seconds.

Zone 3 Setting: Set to 120% of the sum of both lines.

ZZ3 = 1.2 × (Z1 + Z2 ) = 1.2 × (200 + j340) = 240 + j408 Ω

Time Delay: 0.6 to 1.0 seconds.

2 Arc Resistance and Relay Locus Analysis

2.1 Arc Resistance Impact: (2.5 + j6) Ω line
Question Statement: Draw impedance, reactance, and MHO characteristics to protect 100%
of the line having (2.5 + j6) ohm impedance. A fault may occur at any point of line through
an arc resistance of 2 ohms. Determine the maximum percentage of line section which can be
protected by each type of relay. Discuss the effect.

Solution: When an arcing fault occurs, the pure active resistance of the arc (Rarc ) adds to the
fault loop, shifting the apparent impedance vector horizontally to the right on the R-X diagram.
Given parameters: ZL = 2.5 + j6 Ω, Rarc = 2 Ω. Let k be the fraction of the line protected
(0 ≤ k ≤ 1). Apparent impedance: Zseen = kZL + Rarc = (2.5k + 2) + j(6k).
1. Reactance Relay: Characteristic: Horizontal line parallel to R-axis. Setting to protect
100%: Xset = Im(ZL ) = 6 Ω. Operation condition: Im(Zseen ) ≤ Xset =⇒ 6k ≤ 6 =⇒ k ≤ 1.
Result: Protects 100% of the line. It is completely immune to pure arc resistance.
√ 2. Impedance Relay: Characteristic: Circle centered at origin. Setting radius: |Zset | =
2.52 + 62 = 6.5 Ω. Operation condition: |Zseen |2 ≤ |Zset |2

(2.5k + 2)2 + (6k)2 ≤ 6.52

6.25k 2 + 10k + 4 + 36k 2 ≤ 42.25
42.25k 2 + 10k − 38.25 ≤ 0

Solving quadratic for positive root:

p
−10 + 100 − 4(42.25)(−38.25) −10 + 81.02
k= = ≈ 0.8404
2(42.25) 84.5
Result: Protects 84% of the line. Suffers moderate underreach.
3. Mho Relay: Characteristic: Circle passing through origin, diameter is ZL . Center: ZC =
ZL /2 = 1.25 + j3 Ω. Radius: r = 6.5/2 = 3.25 Ω. Operation condition boundary: (R − 1.25)2 +
(X − 3)2 ≤ 3.252 = 10.5625 Substitute R = 2.5k + 2 and X = 6k:

(2.5k + 2 − 1.25)2 + (6k − 3)2 ≤ 10.5625

(2.5k + 0.75)2 + (36k 2 − 36k + 9) ≤ 10.5625
6.25k 2 + 3.75k + 0.5625 + 36k 2 − 36k + 9 ≤ 10.5625
42.25k 2 − 32.25k − 1 ≤ 0

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Solving for positive root:
p
32.25 + (−32.25)2 − 4(42.25)(−1) 32.25 + 34.77
k= = ≈ 0.7931
84.5 84.5
Result: Protects only 79.31% (approx 77% graphically). Suffers severe underreach.

2.2 Arc Resistance Impact: (3.6 + j6) Ω line variant

Question Statement: Draw impedance, reactance and MHO characteristics to protect 100% of
the line having (3.6 + j6) Ω impedance. A fault may occur at any point of line through an arc
resistance of 3 Ω. Determine the maximum percentage of line section which can be protected.

Solution: Parameters: ZL = 3.6 + j6 Ω, Rarc = 3 Ω. Apparent impedance: Zseen = (3.6k + 3) +

j(6k).
1. Reactance Relay: Xset = 6 Ω. Condition: 6k ≤ 6 =⇒ k ≤ 1. Result: Protects 100%.
2. Impedance Relay: Radius |Zset |2 = 3.62 + 62 = 12.96 + 36 = 48.96. Boundary equation:

(3.6k + 3)2 + (6k)2 ≤ 48.96

12.96k 2 + 21.6k + 9 + 36k 2 ≤ 48.96
48.96k 2 + 21.6k − 39.96 ≤ 0
p √
−21.6 + 21.62 − 4(48.96)(−39.96) −21.6 + 466.56 + 7825.76
k= = ≈ 0.709
2(48.96) 97.92
Result: Protects 70.9%.
3. Mho Relay: Center ZC = 1.8 + j3 Ω, Radius squared r2 = 48.96/4 = 12.24. Boundary
equation:

(3.6k + 3 − 1.8)2 + (6k − 3)2 ≤ 12.24

(3.6k + 1.2)2 + (36k 2 − 36k + 9) ≤ 12.24
12.96k 2 + 8.64k + 1.44 + 36k 2 − 36k + 9 ≤ 12.24
48.96k 2 − 27.36k − 1.8 ≤ 0
p √
27.36 + 27.362 − 4(48.96)(−1.8) 27.36 + 748.57 + 352.51
k= = ≈ 0.618
97.92 97.92
Result: Protects only 61.8%.

2.3 Need for Mho Starter Unit with Reactance Relay

Question Statement: Why does the reactance relay need MHO relay as a staring unit?

Solution: The reactance relay’s operational boundary is an infinitely long horizontal line on
the R-X plane; it trips for any impedance where X ≤ Xset , completely ignoring the resistive (R)
component. Under normal, heavy load conditions, the power system operates at a very high
power factor. This creates an apparent load impedance with an enormous resistive component
but an extremely small reactive component. Consequently, this heavy load vector frequently
falls below the horizontal reactance threshold, causing the reactance relay to issue a disastrous
false trip. To prevent this, the relay is permanently supervised by a Mho starting unit. The Mho
circle inherently restricts the operational zone along the R-axis, making it completely immune
to high-power-factor load encroachment. The trip signal is issued via a logical ‘AND‘ gate only
when both the Mho unit (confirming a fault, not load) and the Reactance unit (immune to arc
resistance) operate simultaneously.

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3 Power Swings, Load Encroachment, and Relay Characteristics
3.1 Power Swing Trajectory and Discrimination
Question Statement: What is Power Swing? Draw the trajectory of power swing seen by the dis-
tance relay on R-X plane. Briefly explain how does the distance protection scheme discriminate
the ’fault’ and ’power swing’. Which relaying characteristics would you prefer for this purpose?

Solution: Concept: A power swing is a severe low-frequency electromechanical oscillation

of active and reactive power flows, triggered by major grid disturbances like clearing a heavy
fault or losing a large generator. The mechanical inertia of the generator rotors causes their
electrical load angles (δ) to swing back and forth as they attempt to regain synchronism.
Trajectory: As the angle δ swings, the system voltage and current fluctuate. The apparent
impedance (Z = V /I) traces a distinct path across the R-X plane. If the sending and receiving
voltages are equal, the trajectory is a straight line perpendicular to the total system impedance
vector. If voltages are unequal, it traces a series of sweeping arcs (eccentric M-circles). This
trajectory easily sweeps directly through the distance relay’s tripping zones.
Discrimination via Rate of Change (∆Z/∆t): Distance relays use Power Swing Blocking
(PSB) logic to discriminate.

- Genuine Fault: The transition from load impedance to fault impedance is essentially in-
stantaneous (∼ 2 to 5 milliseconds).

- Power Swing: Because generator rotors have massive physical inertia, the impedance
trajectory moves comparatively slowly across the R-X plane.

The relay evaluates this by employing two concentric boundary characteristics (e.g., two concen-
tric Mho circles or two outer blinders). A timer is started when the impedance vector crosses
the outer boundary. If the vector crosses the inner boundary before the timer expires (fast tran-
sition), it is treated as a fault. If the timer expires while the vector is still between the boundaries
(slow transition), the relay declares a power swing and blocks the trip.
Preferred Characteristics: For lines prone to power swings, the Quadrilateral character-
istic or a Mho characteristic with Blinders is preferred. Blinders truncate the lateral reach of
the operational area, minimizing the physical footprint on the R-X plane, thereby ensuring the
swing trajectory passes through as quickly as possible without lingering in a trip zone.

3.2 Apparent Impedance in Two-Area System & Electric Centre

Question Statement: Derive the expression for apparent impedance seen by a relay in a two-
area system as the function of angle of separation δ. Indicate the nature of the locus. Determine
the “Electric Centre” when ZS = ZR . Given ZL = (2.5 + j6) Ω & ZS = ZR = (0.84 + j2) Ω.

Solution: Consider a two-machine equivalent network. Sending end voltage ES , Receiving

end voltage ER . Total system impedance is ZT = ZS + ZL + ZR . Let the voltage ratio be ES /ER =
nejδ .
The circulating current through the system is:

ES − ER
I=
ZT

The local voltage at the relay (VS ) located after the sending source impedance ZS is:

VS = ES − IZS

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 The apparent impedance seen by the relay is Zseen = VS /I:

ES − IZS ES
Zseen = = − ZS
I I
Substitute the expression for current I:
 
ES ES
Zseen = ES −ER
− ZS = ZT − ZS
ZT
ES − ER

Divide numerator and denominator by ER :

E
!
S
nejδ
 
ER
Zseen = ZT ES
− ZS = ZT − ZS
ER −1 nejδ − 1

Nature of the Locus: When n = 1 (|ES | = |ER |), varying δ traces a straight line which is the
perpendicular bisector of the total system impedance vector ZT .
Electric Centre Calculation: The Electric Centre is the point where the voltage collapses
to zero during a 180◦ out-of-step condition. It is the electrical midpoint of the total system:
Zmid = ZT /2. Given ZS = ZR = 0.84 + j2 Ω and ZL = 2.5 + j6 Ω:

ZT = (0.84 + j2) + (2.5 + j6) + (0.84 + j2) = 4.18 + j10 Ω

4.18 + j10
Zmid = = 2.09 + j5 Ω
2
To find the distance from the relay to the Electric Centre, we subtract the source impedance
behind the relay:

ZElectric_Centre_Relay = Zmid − ZS = (2.09 + j5) − (0.84 + j2) = 1.25 + j3 Ω

Since 1.25 + j3 is exactly half of ZL (2.5 + j6), the electric centre lies exactly at the midpoint of the
transmission line.

3.3 Load Encroachment and Quadrilateral Realization

Question Statement: What do you mean by “load encroachment”? What modification is needed
in the MHO relay to eliminate it? Which characteristic is most suited for EHV lines and how would
you realize it in a numerical relay?

Solution: Load Encroachment: During peak load conditions, maximum power is trans-
ferred across the line. Because Zseen = |V |2 /S ∗ , as apparent power S increases heavily, the
apparent impedance shrinks drastically, moving toward the origin along the resistive (R) axis.
For extra-long EHV lines, the distance relay requires a massive reactive reach (large Mho circle
diameter). This massive circle inherently spans a wide area over the R-axis, causing the shrink-
ing load impedance to ”encroach” into the tripping zone and falsely trip the line.
Modifications to MHO: To eliminate this in older generation relays, the MHO characteris-
tic was modified into a ”Lenticular” (lens-shaped) or ”Figure-Eight” characteristic. Alternatively,
”Blinders” (straight lines) were added to chop off the excessive resistive reach of the Mho circle.
Most Suited Characteristic for EHV: The Quadrilateral Characteristic is unanimously the
most suited for extra-long EHV lines. It completely uncouples the reactive reach from the resis-
tive reach. It allows an extremely high reactive boundary to cover the long line, while keeping
the right-hand resistive boundary extremely narrow to cleanly bypass the load encroachment
wedge.

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 Realization in a Numerical Relay: Unlike electromechanical relays that use induction cups,
a numerical relay realizes the Quadrilateral characteristic purely via mathematical algorithms.
1. The internal microprocessor continually estimates the phasor quantities V and I using DFT.
2. It calculates Zseen = Rseen + jXseen . 3. The Quadrilateral boundary is defined in software by
four linear inequality equations:

- Top Reactance Line: Xseen < Xset

- Right Resistance Blinder: Rseen < Rright_limit

- Left Resistance Blinder: Rseen > Rlef t_limit

- Bottom Directional Line: Xseen > −Rseen tan(θdir )

4. The relay applies a logical AND operator. If all four conditions evaluate to TRUE simultaneously,
the impedance vector lies inside the polygon, and the numerical relay asserts a trip output.

4 Numerical Relays, Signal Processing, and Phasor Estimation

4.1 Numerical Relay Architecture and Aliasing
Question Statement: State three important features of numerical relays. Draw the block-
schematic. Explain the role of anti-aliasing filter. If a 50Hz signal is sampled at 52 Hz, how
would it be represented in frequency domain?

Solution: Important Features: 1. Self-Monitoring: Continuous background diagnostics

check internal RAM, ROM, A/D converters, and power supplies, alerting operators instantly to
hardware failures. 2. Multi-functionality: A single numerical relay platform executes over-
current, distance, overvoltage, and differential logic concurrently through software. 3. Distur-
bance Recording: Stores pre-fault and post-fault high-resolution oscillography and event logs,
enabling precise post-mortem fault analysis.
Block Schematic Sequence: Voltage/Current Transducers → Analog Signal Conditioning →
Anti-Aliasing Low Pass Filter → Sample and Hold (S/H) circuit → Multiplexer → Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC) → Digital Signal Processor (DSP/Microprocessor) → Digital Output Contacts.
Role of the Anti-Aliasing Filter: According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling frequency
(fs ) must be at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal (fmax ). Fault transients
contain high-frequency noise. If these noise frequencies exceed the Nyquist limit (fs /2), the
digital sampling process will incorrectly map them into the lower fundamental frequency spec-
trum—a destructive phenomenon called aliasing. The Anti-Aliasing filter is a hardwired analog
Low-Pass Filter placed strictly before the ADC to block all frequencies above the Nyquist limit,
preventing spectrum corruption.
Aliasing Example (50Hz sampled at 52Hz): Nyquist frequency fN = 52/2 = 26 Hz. Since
50Hz > 26Hz, aliasing will definitely occur. The aliased frequency is given by falias = |fin − N · fs |,
where N is an integer bringing the result into the Nyquist band.

falias = |50 − 1 · 52| = | − 2| = 2 Hz

In the digital frequency domain, the relay will be entirely blind to the 50Hz signal and will falsely
see it as a slow, rolling 2 Hz component.

4.2 Phasor Estimation using Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

Question Statement: How is the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) used in numerical relay for
phasor estimation. Clearly mention the mathematical steps. Compute phasor from data: 1:

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5.83 | 2: -1.79 | 3: -8.22 | 4: -9.77 | 5: -5.83 | 6: 1.79 | 7: 8.22 | 8: 9.76 | 9: 5.83 | 10: -1.79.
Sampled at 0.4 kHz.

Solution: Mathematical Theory: The DFT extracts the fundamental 50Hz phasor (Vc − jVs )
from raw digital samples by correlating the data against orthogonal sine and cosine reference
2 PN −1
waves. Let N be the number of samples per cycle. 1. Real part: Vc = N k=0 xk cos 2πk


N 2.
P −1
Imaginary part: Vs = N2 N 2πk

p
x sin 3. Phasor magnitude and angle: |V | = V 2 + V 2 and
k=0 k N c s
θ = tan−1 (Vc /Vs ). 4. Recursive Update: As a new sample xnew arrives and xold is discarded, the
2π
new phasor Xnew = Xold + N2 (xnew − xold )e−j N .
Numerical Computation: f = 50 Hz, fs = 400 Hz. Samples per cycle N = 400/50 = 8. Angle
step = 360◦ /8 = 45◦ . Window 1 (Samples 2 through 9): {−1.79, −8.22, −9.77, −5.83, 1.79, 8.22, 9.76, 5.83}.

k Index Angle θ xk (V) cos(θ) xk cos(θ) xk sin(θ)

0 0◦ -1.79 1.000 -1.79 0.00
1 45◦ -8.22 0.707 -5.81 -5.81
2 90◦ -9.77 0.000 0.00 -9.77
3 135◦ -5.83 -0.707 4.12 -4.12
4 180◦ 1.79 -1.000 -1.79 0.00
5 225◦ 8.22 -0.707 -5.81 -5.81
6 270◦ 9.76 0.000 0.00 -9.76
7 315◦ 5.83 0.707 4.12 -4.12

Sums: Vc = 28 (−6.96) = −1.74. Vs = 28 (−39.39) = −9.84. Phasor V = Vc − jVs = −1.74 +

P P
p √
j9.84 (Peak representation). Magnitude: (−1.74)2 + (9.84)2 = 3.02 + 96.82 ≈ 9.99 V (approx 10 V Peak).
Angle: tan−1 (9.84/ − 1.74) ≈ 100◦ . Phasor 1 = 10∠100◦ V.
Window 2 Computation (Samples 3 through 10): Using recursive DFT property. The new
sample x10 = −1.79. The discarded sample x2 = −1.79. Because (xnew − xold ) = (−1.79 −
(−1.79)) = 0, the recursive update term is strictly zero. Therefore, the phasor remains iden-
tical: 10∠100◦ V.

4.3 Full Cycle vs Half Cycle DFT on a Composite Signal

Question Statement (From Annotated Notes): x(t) = 5 sin(2π50t) + 0.5 sin(2π150t − 30◦ ) sam-
pled at 400 Hz. Compute magnitude using full cycle (recursive/non-recursive) and half cycle
(recursive/non-recursive) DFT. Compare and give remarks.

Solution: The signal consists of a fundamental 50Hz wave heavily corrupted by a 150Hz
third-harmonic. Sampling frequency fs = 400 Hz. Number of samples per cycle N = 400/50 = 8.
1. Full Cycle DFT (Recursive and Non-Recursive): A Full Cycle DFT utilizes a data window of
exactly one fundamental period (N = 8 samples, 20 ms). The mathematical definition of Fourier
orthogonality guarantees that integrating over exactly one fundamental period will completely
annihilate all integer harmonics (both even and odd). Therefore, whether using the static non-
recursive formula or the sliding recursive update, the Full Cycle DFT will inherently filter out the
entirety of the 150Hz (3rd harmonic) signal. Result: The calculated magnitude will perfectly and
steadily converge to the exact fundamental amplitude of 5.00 V.
2. Half Cycle DFT (Recursive and Non-Recursive): A Half Cycle DFT shrinks the data window
to just N /2 = 4 samples (10 ms) to achieve faster relay tripping times. However, mathematically,
a Half Cycle data window is only orthogonal to even harmonics (2nd, 4th, etc.). It absolutely fails
to provide attenuation for odd harmonics. Because the corruption is at 150Hz (an odd 3rd har-
monic), the Half Cycle DFT will erroneously map the harmonic energy onto the fundamental

9
frequency estimation. Result: The calculated magnitude will not be a steady 5.00 V. It will os-
cillate wildly, exhibiting substantial steady-state error depending on the instantaneous phase
angle of the sampling window.
Remarks: For apparent impedance estimation in distance relays, the highly inductive fault
loop frequently generates severe odd-harmonic transients. A Half Cycle DFT, while offering a
10ms speed advantage, provides critically corrupted phasor data in the presence of odd har-
monics, causing the impedance phasor trajectory to wildly oscillate and risking false trips. There-
fore, modern numerical distance relays mandate the use of the Full Cycle DFT to ensure abso-
lute security and stability of the Mho characteristic boundaries.

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