BRIDGES

The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect multiple
LANs to a larger LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as
bridges, hubs, routers, switches, etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a
particular purpose. The bridge is a networking device that connects the larger LAN networks
with the group of smaller LAN networks.

In this article, we are going to discuss everything about the bridge including what exactly a
bridge is, and the type of bridges we have in computer networks including transparent
bridges, source routing bridges, and translational bridges, which will be followed by
advantages and disadvantages of the bridge in networking. then how the bridge is different
from the gateway and last we will look into the applications and functions of the bridge in
the network.

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a
larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as
bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model's data
link layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.

The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine
whether to filter or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide
network connections into sections, now each section has a separate bandwidth and a
separate collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

Working of Bridges

Let's see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:

 Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network
segments A and B.

 Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is
coming from to know which device is on which segment.

 Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A,
the bridge stops it from going further.
  Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the
bridge sends it to the correct place on network B.

 Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from
network B.

Uses of Bridge in Computer Network

 Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate multiple
LANs together.

 On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to accept or
reject the data.

 In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the
network.

 Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is
unavailable.

 It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.

 The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC address
is available.

Functions of Bridges in the Network

 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.

 To control the traffic in the network.

 It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.

 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.

Advantages
  Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two network
topologies together.

 It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.

 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different segments.

 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into

multiple LAN segments.

 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software except the

bridge itself.

 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.

Disadvantages

 Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.

 Slow in speed.

 Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC address of

the device on the network.

 As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual filtering of data is

not possible.

 During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic and
broadcast storms can be formed.

REPEATERS

A repeater is a network device that regenerates weakened or corrupted signals to restore

them to their original form before retransmission. It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1)
of the OSI model. Unlike an amplifier, which increases both signal and noise, a repeater
reconstructs the original clean signal and forwards it, ensuring reliable data delivery over
longer distances.

Features of Repeaters

 Regenerates signals without altering the original data.

 Works with both analog and digital signals (depending on the type).
  Extends the range of a network beyond distance limitations.

 Reduces errors and data loss caused by weak signals.

 Requires power to operate.

 Adds a layer of complexity in network design if used excessively.

Working of Repeaters

 Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile
phone, laptop or radio.

 This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it's wireless network or
through the cable if it is wired network. As the signal goes away from the source it's
strength gets weak.

 The signal received to the repeater is not the actual signal sent by source system but
a weak signal. Therefore repeater amplifies this weak signal to get it strengthen.

 The strengthen signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination. This
signal is more stronger and can travel at longer distance. In short, it extends the
network without losing the quality of signal.

 Repeaters are therefore used in various wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and
wired technologies such as ethernet.

Advantages of Repeater

 Better Performance of Network: Repeaters provide with better performance of

network because they do not always depend on processing overheads at the time.

 Cost Effective: Repeaters are more cost effective as compared to other network
devices therefore they are cost effective.

 Extends the network: Repeaters provides with an advantage to extend the available
network for transmission of data.

 No Physical barriers: Using physical devices can led to some barrier while
transmission of signals. With the help of wireless repeaters such issues are resolved.

 Enhanced Signals: When computer devices and routers are connected in a network
over long distance it weakens the strength of signals. While using repeaters it
improves the strength of signals even over long distances.

Disadvantages of Repeater

 Network Traffic: Repeaters do not have features to segment the network traffic.
Therefore repeaters do lack with the property to congestion.
 Network Segmentation: As repeaters do not have feature to segment the network
traffic repeaters cannot create a separate traffic from one cable to another.

 Limited number of repeaters: Use of limited number of repeaters is supported by

the network. If more number of repeaters are used that the specified one, it can
even create collision of packets and increase the noise.

 Collision Domain: The information is passed from various domains repeater is not
able to separate the devices.

Router
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between different

computer networks. It connects multiple packet-switched networks or subnetworks,

managing traffic by directing packets to their intended IP addresses. Routers allow

multiple devices to share an Internet connection efficiently.

How Does a Router Work?

Routers determine the path for a packet by examining its destination IP address and

consulting the routing table, which contains information on network paths. They use

a set of rules to identify the most efficient route for each packet.

 Static routing: Configured manually, suitable for small or stable networks.

 Dynamic routing: Automatically updated based on network activity, ideal for large or

changing networks.

Functions of a Router

 Forwarding: Receives packets, examines headers, and forwards them to the correct

output port.
  Routing: Determines the optimal path for packets using routing tables and

algorithms.

 Network Address Translation (NAT): Translates private IPs to a public IP for Internet

access.

 Security: Supports firewalls and other security measures.

 VPN Connectivity: Provides secure remote access to networks.

 Bandwidth Management: Controls data flow to prevent congestion.

 Monitoring & Diagnostics: Tracks traffic and helps troubleshoot network issues.

Applications of Routers

 Connect remote servers, networks, and devices globally.

 Support wired and wireless communication, including high-speed data transfer.

 Used by ISPs to transmit audio, video, image, and email efficiently.

 Implement access control, enabling selective resource usage.

Types of Routers

1. Broadband Routers: Connect computers to the Internet and share the connection.

2. Wireless Routers: Create Wi-Fi networks in homes or offices.

3. Wired Routers: Connect multiple devices via Ethernet cables, common in schools
and offices.

4. Edge Routers: Located at network boundaries, distributing packets to and from ISPs.

5. Core Routers: Operate within networks, handling heavy data traffic.

6. Virtual Routers: Software-based routers implemented on virtual machines for

flexibility and scalability.

7. Portable Routers: Small devices creating private Wi-Fi for mobility.

GATEWAYS

A gateway is a network connectivity device that connects two different configuration

networks. Gateways are also known as protocol converters, because they play an important
role in converting protocols supported by traffic on different networks. As a result, it allows
smooth communication between two networks. It works as the entry-exit point for a
network because all traffic that passes across the networks must pass through the gateway.
A gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing network traffic. Gateways
are also known as protocol converters.

Features of Gateways

Gateways provide a wide variety of features. Some of these are:

 A gateway is situated at a network edge and manages all data that enters or exits the
network.

 A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer of
the OSI model.

 Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and
divided it into small packets of data rather than sending it bulk.

 Gateways provide security within the network.

Types of Gateways

These below are the types of Gateway on the basis of direction of flow of data:

 Unidirectional Gateways: Data can only pass through unidirectional gateways in one
direction. The destination node replicates changes made in the source node but not
the other way around. They are tools for archiving the packets.

 Bidirectional Gateway: Data can pass through bidirectional gateways in both

directions. They are tools for synchronisation.

How Gateways Work?

 The gateway receives data from devices within the network.

 After receiving data the gateway intercept and analyze data packets, which include
analyzing packet header, payload etc.

 Based on the analysis of the data packets, the gateway calculate an appropriate
destination address of data packet. It then routes the data packets to their
destination address.

 In some cases, the gateway might also want to transform the format of the obtained
data to ensure compatibility at the receiver.

 Once the data packets have been analyzed, routed, and converted, then the gateway
sends the last packets to their respective destinations address inside the network.
Advantages of Gateways

 Gateway helps in connecting two different network.

 Gateway is used to filters and does not allow anything that can harm to the network.

 Gateway is worked as the protocol converter.

 Gateway is the highly secure device that provides security from external attacks.

Limitations of Gateways

There are few limitations of gateways as well. Here are some of them:

 Gateway causes time delay since the conversion of data according to the network
requires time.

 Failure of the gateway might lead to the failure of connection with other networks.

 The implementation of Gateway is very complex and it is not cost efficient.

FIREWALL

A firewall is a network security system, available as hardware or software, that monitors and
controls incoming and outgoing traffic based on predefined rules. It acts like a security
guard, filtering data packets to either:

 Accept: Allow the traffic.

 Reject: Block with an error response.

 Drop: Block silently without response.

Importance of Firewalls

A firewall is the first line of defense in cybersecurity, acting as a security barrier between
internal systems and external networks. It forces all traffic through a single checkpoint,
where data packets are monitored, filtered, and either allowed or blocked based on
predefined rules. Firewalls are essential because they:

 Prevent Unauthorized Access: Like a locked door with a guard, only trusted users
and traffic are allowed through.

 Block Malicious Traffic: Harmful data such as viruses, phishing attempts, or denial-of-
service (DoS) attacks are stopped before reaching the system.

 Protect Sensitive Information: Safeguards personal and business data from theft or
accidental leaks.

 Control Network Usage: Enforces policies such as parental controls, workplace

restrictions, or government filtering.

 Mitigate Insider Risks: Detects suspicious applications or data exfiltration attempts

from within the network.

Working of Firewall

A firewall inspects all incoming and outgoing traffic and decide whether to allow or block
it.

1. All data packets entering or leaving the network must first pass through the firewall.

2. The firewall examines each packet against predefined security rules set by the
organization.

3. If the packet matches safe rules, it is allowed; if it is suspicious, blacklisted, or

contains malicious content, it is blocked.
4. Blocked or unusual traffic is recorded in logs, and real-time alerts may be generated
for serious threats.

5. Since it is not possible to define every rule, the firewall applies a default policy
(accept, reject, or drop). Setting the default policy to drop or reject is considered best
practice to prevent unauthorized access.

Types of Firewall

Firewalls can be categorized based on their generation.

1) Network Placement

 Packet Filtering Firewall

 Stateful Inspection Firewall

 Proxy Firewall (Application Level)

 Circuit-Level Gateway

 Web Application Firewall (WAF)

 Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW)

2) Systems Protected

 Network Firewall

 Host-Based Firewall

3) Data Filtering Method

 Perimeter Firewall

 Internal Firewall

 Distributed Firewall

4) Form Factors

 Hardware Firewall

 Software Firewall