What is a Function? s.

split(',') # ['Python', 'is', 'an', 'interpreted', 'language']

A function is a reusable block of code that performs a specific 🧵 join()
task. It helps in modularity and code reuse. ' '.join(["Python is", "awesome"]) # 'Python is awesome'
Default arguments allow you to define default values for 🔍 find() & rfind()
parameters in a function. When a value is not provided by the s = "Python is a programming language"
caller, the default value is used. [Link]('i') # 7
What is *args? [Link]('i') # 20
Use *args when you don’t know how many values (numbers, [Link]('z') # -1 (not found)
names, etc.) will be passed to a function. 🔍 index() & rindex()
It collects positional arguments (those without a name) into a [Link]('p') #0
tuple. [Link]('p',10,20) # 12
What is **kwargs? [Link]('z') # ValueError
Use **kwargs when you don’t know how many named values 🔤 ord() & chr()
(like name="John", age=25) will be passed. ord('a') # 97
It collects keyword arguments into a dictionary. chr(65) # 'A'
A string is a datatype that is used to store text. It is made up function to slice first 2 & last 2 chars from a given a string
of letters, numbers, spaces,/symbols,written between quotes def string_both_ends(str):
🔹 1. Cannot Add Elements to Strings return str[:2] + str[-2:]
Strings are immutable, so you cannot use methods like print(string_both_ends('python programming'))
append(), extend(), or insert(). Expression Result
However, you can create new strings by concatenation: s 'python'
Operation Example Result s[-1] 'n'
Concatenation 'a' + 'b' 'ab' s[-2] 'o'
Repetition 'ab' * 3 'ababab' s[-6] 'p'
Join elements ' '.join(['a','b']) 'a b' s[-4:-1] 'tho'
s[-4:] 'thon'
🔹 2. Remove/Replace Elements
s[:-2] 'pyth'
Example Result
s[::-1] 'nohtyp'
'apple'.replace('p','') 'ale'
s[-1:-4:-1] 'noh'
' hi '.strip() 'hi'
s[-2:-5:-1] 'oht'
Note:You can't remove characters using pop()/del like in
lists. You must create a new string. s[-3:-6:-1] 'hyt'
s[-5:-2] 'yth'
🔹 3. Search / Count s[-2:-6:-2] 'ot'
Method Example Result s[-3::-1] 'htyp'
index() & rindex (value 1 (first s[-1:-6:-1] 'nohty'
'apple'.index('p')
error) occurrence) String traversal using while loop
find() & rfind() (-1) 'apple'.find('z') -1 (if not found) s="Python"
count() 'apple'.count('p') 2 i=0
while (i < len(s)):
in 'p' in 'apple' True
print(s[i], end= '')
startswith() 'apple'.startswith('a') True i=i+1
endswith() 'apple'.endswith('e') True Printing locations of a substring with index location
s="a is a then what is a"
🔹 4. Sort & Reverse (Indirect) pos=-1
Strings don’t have .sort() or .reverse() methods, but you can while True:
use these alternatives: pos=[Link]("a",pos+1)
Operation Example Result if pos==-1:
Sorted sorted('cba') ['a', 'b', 'c'] break
Reverse iterator ''.join(reversed('abc')) 'cba' print(pos)
Manual reverse 'hello'[::-1] 'olleh' Deposit & withdraw:
def func(l):
🔹 5. Copying Strings d,w=0,0
Since strings are immutable, copies are easy: for i in l:
Method Syntax Example Result l_new=[Link](":")
Slice copy s[:] 'hello'[:] 'hello' print(l_new)
if l_new[0]=="D":
Constructor str(s) str('hello') 'hello'
d=d+int(l_new[1])
Assign s2 = s1 b = a Points to same value elif l_new[0]=="W":
🔍 Membership Operators w=w+int(l_new[1])
"Program" in "Python Programming" # True (case-sensitive) return (d-w)
"Program" not in "Python Programming" # False print(func(["D:300","D:300","W:200","D:100"]))
🪓 split() Counting no of occurances of a substring
s = "Python,is,an,interpreted,language" s = "abcabcabc"
sub = 'abc' print(s)
count = 0
for i in s:
for i in range(len(s) - len(sub) + 1): if len(i)%2==0:
if s[i:i+len(sub)] == sub: print(i)
count = count + 1 str = "ab abc abcd a"
print(f"'{sub}' appears {count} times") even_words(str)
def func(a): def func(str1, str2):
i=0 for i in str1:
a_new="" if i in str2:
while len(a)>i: print(i, end="")
a_new=a[i]+a_new
i=i+1 func('rose', 'gooise')
return a_new Lists:
print(func("omlal")) 🔹 Python List – Key Features (Short)
def func(s): 1. Data Structure – Holds any data type (int, float, str,
if len(s)<=2: bool, etc.).
return s 2. Mutable – Can be changed (add, update, delete
elif s[-3:]=="ing": items).
return s+"ly" 3. Ordered – Maintains insertion order; supports
else: indexing & slicing.
return s+"ing" 4. Supports Operations – Insert, update, delete,
print(func("omlally")) search, sort, etc.
finds the number of letters and digits in the sentence. 5. Syntax – Defined using square brackets [ ].
s = 'year 2025' 🔹 1. Add Elements
d=l=0 Method Syntax Example Result
Adds 10 to end of
for i in s: append() [Link](value) [Link](10)
list
if [Link]():
d=d+1 [Link]([4, Adds all values
extend() [Link](iterable)
elif [Link](): 5]) from [4, 5]
l=l+1 Inserts 99 at
insert() [Link](index, value) [Link](1, 99)
else: position 1
pass
🔹 2. Remove Elements
print("Letters", l) Method Syntax Example Result
print("Digits", d) Removes first
remove() [Link](value) [Link](5)
def reverse_str(s): occurrence of 5
s_new = '' Removes value at
for i in s: pop() [Link](index) [Link](2) index 2 (default is
s_new = i + s_new last)
return s_new clear() [Link]() [Link]() Removes all value

print(reverse_str("Welcome")) del
del l[1]
files = ["[Link]", "[Link]", "[Link]"] (statement) del list[index] del (statement)
for i in files: del list[start:end]
if [Link](("doc", "data")):
print(f"{i} is a text file")
else: 🔹 3. Search / Count
print(f"{i} is not a text file") Method Syntax Example Result
s = "[Link]" index() [Link](value) [Link](7) Returns index of 7
print([Link](".pdf")) Returns how many times
count() [Link](value) [Link](2)
print([Link](".docx")) 2 appears
Removing specified character in a given srting
def remove(s, i): 🔹 4. Sort & Reverse
a = s[:i] Method Syntax Example Result
b = s[i+1:] Sorts list
return a+ b in
sort() [Link]() [Link]()
ascendin
s = "Python" g order
i=2
Sorts
print(remove(str, i)) sort(reverse=Tr [Link](reverse=T [Link](reverse=Tr
descendi
program to print even length words in a string ue) rue) ue)
ng
def even_words(s):
Reverses
s = [Link](' ') reverse() [Link]() [Link]()
the list
 Method Syntax Example Result program which returns true if one of the first 4 elements
Returns in list is 9.
sorted def func(l,n):
sorted() sorted(list) sorted(a) if n in l[:4]:
copy of
list return True
return False
🔹 5. Copying Lists print(func([9,9,2,3,9],1))
Method Syntax Example Result Removing Duplicates
[Link]() def func(l):
copy() or l2 = b = [Link]() Makes a copy of the list l_new=[]
l1[:] for i in l:
if i not in l_new:
l_new.append(i)
a = ['a', 'b']
return l_new
c="string"
print(func([1,-1,9,9,1,1,1]))
[Link](c)
print(a) Function to check a list is empty or not
['a', 'b', 's', 't', 'r', 'i', 'n', 'g'] list1=[]
if not list1:
print("nothig")
l = ['aaaaaa22222', 'baaaaa']
[Link](key=len) In two lists if they have at least one common returns True
print(l) def func(l1,l2):
for i in l1:
if i in l2:
l=[100,'python',50.8,'a',200,300]
return True
i=0
return False
print(func([-1,9,9],[-1,11,-1]))
while i < len(l):
print(l[i])
find common elements
i=i+1
def func(l1, l2):
[Link](20,'True') c = []
print (l) #[100, 'python', 50.8, 'a', 200, 300, 'True'] for i in l1:
l=[100,'python',50.8] if i in l2 and i not in c:
[Link]("string") [Link](i)
print (l) #[100, 'python', 50.8, 's', 't', 'r', 'i', 'n', return c
'g'] List Comprehension:
l = ['banana', 'pie', 'Washington', 'book'] Syntax:[expression for item in iterable if condition]
[Link](key=len, reverse=True) # In-place Nested Loops:[expression for item1 in iterable1 for item2 in
print(l) #['Washington', 'banana', 'book', 'pie'] iterable2]
Multiplies all the items in a list l=[i for i in "computer"]
def multiply_list(l): print(l)
tot = 1 l=["allow","sequences","to","be","built","from","other","sequ
for i in l: ences"]
tot = tot * i l=[[Link]() for i in l]
return tot print(l)
# Convert height to feet 1 cm = 0.0328 feet
print(multiply_list([1,2,5,9,10]))
h_cms = [('akshay',183),('rahul',171),('sourav',179),
Get the largest number from a list ('virat',190),('rohit',165)]
def func(l): h_fts=[(i[0],round(i[1]*0.0328),2) for i in h_cms]
max=l[0] print(h_fts)
for i in range(len(l)):
Finding common elements in list
if l[i]>max:
a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 6]
max=l[i]
b = [2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 2]
return max0
l=[i for i in a for j in b if i==j]
print(l)
print(func([-1,-6,-9,-11,2]))
✅ 8. Nested Loops (Multiplication Table)
list of words that are longer than n from a list of words.
l1 = [20,40,60]
def func(l,n):
l2 = [2,4,6]
l_new=[Link](" ")
l1 = [x * y for x in l1 for y in l2]
result=[]
print(l1)
for i in range(len(l_new)):
if len(l_new[i])>=n: Dictionary:
[Link](l_new[i]) Features:
return result 1. Unordered → No fixed order (in concept).
print(func("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog",5)) 2. Mutable → Values can be changed.
3. Keys must be unique & immutable → e.g., string,
number, tuple.
 4. Values can be of any data type → int, list, dict, etc. freq[num] = 1
5. Each key-value pair is called an item.
6. Defined using curly braces {}. print(freq) # {1: 2, 2: 2, 3: 1, 4: 1}
🔹 1. Accessing & Retrieving def func(s):
Method / freq={}
Syntax Example Result s=[Link]()
Statement
student = {'name': print(s)
Access for i in s:
dict[key] 'Alice'}; 'Alice'
value if i in freq:
print(student['name'])
student = {'age': 21}; freq[i]=freq[i]+1
get() [Link](key) 21 else:
print([Link]('age'))
freq[i]=1
student = {'name':
dict_keys(['name', return freq
keys() [Link]() 'Alice', 'age': 21};
'age']) print(func("omlal sai kantekar sai ram ramu"))
print([Link]())
student = {'name': swap keys & values
dict_values(['Alice',d={1:2,2:3,10:11}
values() [Link]() 'Alice', 'age': 21};
21]) d1={v:k for k,v in [Link]()}
print([Link]())
print(d1)
student = {'name':
dict_items([('name',keys & even or odd
items() [Link]() 'Alice', 'age': 21};
'Alice'), ('age', 21)])nums = [1, 2, 3, 4]
print([Link]())
2. Adding & Updating result = {x: ('even' if x%2==0 else 'odd') for x in nums}
Method Syntax Example Result # Output: {1: 'odd', 2: 'even', 3: 'odd', 4: 'even'}
Add / Adds letters = ['a', 'b']
dict[key] = value student['grade'] = 'A'
Update 'grade': 'A' numbers = [1, 2]
d1={(l,n):l+str(n) for l in letters for n in numbers}
[Link]({'age': Updates
update() [Link](other_dict) print(d1)
22}) 'age' to 22
🔹 3. Removing Elements Dict= {'eooooa': 1, 'aas': 2, 'udd': 3, 'sseo': 4, 'werwi': 5}
Method Syntax Example Result sorted_dict = {i: Dict[i] for i in sorted(Dict)}
print(sorted_dict)
student = {'name':
'Alice'}; a={i: chr(97+i) for i in range(26)}
pop() [Link](key) {} print(a, end="")
[Link]('name');
print(student) d=
student = {'name': ["allow","sequences","to","be","built","from","other","sequen
'Alice', 'age': 21}; Removes last ces"]
popitem() [Link]()
[Link](); inserted item
print(student) {i:len(i) for i in d}
student = {'age': 21}; del scores = {'maths': 55, 'physics': 65, 'chemistry': 75}
del keyword del dict[key] student['age']; {} new_marks = {sub: marks + 5 for (sub, marks) in
print(student) [Link]()}
print(new_marks)
student = {'name':
clear() [Link]() 'Alice'}; [Link](); {} scores = {'maths': 50, 'physics': 60, 'chemistry': 75}
print(student) new={k:v for (k,v) in [Link]() if v%2==0 if v>50}
print(new)
🔹 4. Copying & Creating def traverse(scores,value):
Method Syntax Example Result for k,v in [Link]():
if v==value:
student = {'age': 21};
return k,v
new_student =
copy() [Link]() {'age': 21} print(traverse({'maths': 50, 'physics': 60, 'chemistry': 75},50))
[Link]();
print(new_student) d = {'eooooa': 1, 'aas': 2, 'udd': 3, 'sseo': 4, 'werwi': 5}
keys = ['a', 'b'];
print(sorted(d, key=len))
[Link](keys, new_dict = {'a': 0, 'b':
fromkeys() Case_study:Super Market
value) [Link](keys, 0}
0); print(new_dict)
 all(dict) → checks if all keys are truthy.
 all([Link]()) → checks if all values are truthy.
 any([Link]()) → checks if any value is truthy.
arr = [1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 4]
freq = {}

for num in arr:

if num in freq:
freq[num] += 1
else:
 Method Syntax Example Result
Returns reversed
reversed() tuple(reversed(t)) tuple(reversed(a))
tuple

🔹 5. Copying Tuples
Method Syntax Example Result
Copy t2 = t1 b = a Both refer to same tuple
Slice Copy t2 = t1[:] b = a[:] Creates a copy of the tuple

data5=(1,2,3,4)
data6=(1) #error
data7 = data5 + data6

print (data7)
sum and product of all elements in a tuple of numbers.
def func(a):
s=0
p=1
for i in a:
s=s+i
p=p*i
return (s,p)
print(func((11,4)))
function that takes two tuples and returns a tuple
containing the element-wise sum of the input tuples
def func(a,b):
if len(a)!=len(b):
raise ValueError("not match")
l=tuple(i+j for i,j in zip(a,b))
return l
print(func((1,2,3),(3,2,10,9)))
Tuple: function that takes a tuple & a value, & returns a new
✅ Common Methods in Both str and list tuple with value inserted at beginning of original tuple
Method Description Notes def func(t,v):
return ((v,)+t)
Returns (index, Useful in loops over both
enumerate(obj) print(func((1,2,3),9))
value) pairs strings and lists
function that takes a tuple of tuples and returns a tuple
🔹 1. Creating / Adding Elements (Workarounds) containing the diagonal elements of the input.
def func(t):
Method Syntax Example Result
return tuple(t[i][i] for i in range(len(t)))
tuple1 + Returns new tuple print(func(((1, 2, 3),(4, 0, 6),(7, 8, 1))))
Concatenation a + (10,)
tuple2 with 10 added
a, b = (10, 20, 30)
Repeats the tuple
Repetition tuple * n a*3
3 times print(a)
list(t) → print(b)
tuple(list(a) + Add element by
Conversion modify → print(c) #ValueError: too many values to unpack(expected
[10]) converting to list
tuple(l) 2)
function that takes a tuple of strings and concatenates
🔹 2. Remove Elements (Workarounds) them, separating each string with a space.
Method Syntax Example Result def func(t):
list(t) → Remove by return " ".join(t)
Conversion modify → tuple(list(a).remove(5)) converting to print(func(('Hello', 'World', 'from', 'Python')))
tuple(l) list function that takes two tuples and returns a tuple
containing the common elements of the input tuples.
🔹 3. Search / Count def func(t1, t2):
Method Syntax Example Result return tuple(set(t1) & set(t2))
Returns index of first func((1, 2, 3, 4, 5),(4, 5, 6, 7, 8))
index() [Link](value) [Link](7)
occurrence of 7 Unpack a tuple in several variables
Returns number of t = 1,2,3
count() [Link](value) [Link](2)
times 2 appears
n1, n2, n3 = t
🔹 4. Sort & Reverse (Workarounds) print(n1 + n2 + n3)
Method Syntax Example Result Remove an item from a tuple
sorted() sorted(tuple) sorted(a) Returns sorted list t = ("p", "y", "t", "h", "o", "n")
l = list(t) Operation Syntax/Example Result
[Link]("h") Difference a - b, [Link](b) {1, 2}
t = tuple(l) Symmetric a ^ b,
print(t) {1, 2, 4, 5}
Difference a.symmetric_difference(b)
Reverse a tuple Subset a <= b, [Link](b) False
x = ("tuple")
Superset a >= b, [Link](b) False
y = reversed(x)
print(type(y)) Disjoint [Link](b) False
print(tuple(y))
Output:<class 'reversed'> ('e', 'l', 'p', 'u', 't') 🔹 3. Frozenset (Immutable Set)
Remove an empty tuple(s) from a list of tuples Concept Example Result
l = [(), (),('a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'c'), ('d')] fSet = frozenset({'a', 'e', 'i',
Create
l = [i for i in l if i] frozenset(['a','e','i','o','u']) 'o', 'u'})
print(l) Empty
frozenset() frozenset()
Check whether an element exists within a tuple frozen
addCodeaddText Dictionary frozenset({'name': 'John'})
frozenset({'name'})
tuplex = 2, 4, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4, 4, 7 key → keys only
Immutable fSet[0] = 'z' TypeError
print(4 in tuplex)
print(51 in tuplex) [Link]([7,8],{1,2,9})
Sets: numbers
1. Using Curly Braces {} o/p: {1, 2, 3.5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
s = {1, 2, 3}
2. Using set() Constructor days={'Monday','Tuesday','Wednesday','Thursday','Friday','Sa
s = set() # Empty set (⚠️`{}` creates a dictionary) turday','Sunday'}
# A set is mutable, but may not contain mutable items like a max(days) # Wednesday
list, set, or even a dictionary.
✅ Python Built-in Functions (With Examples)
Properties of Sets
 Unordered: No indexing or slicing.
🔹 1. zip():Combines multiple iterables (lists, tuples, etc.)
 Mutable: You can add or remove elements.
element-wise into tuples.
 Unique Elements: No duplicates allowed.
 Heterogeneous: Can contain mixed data types (but Syntax zip(iter1, iter2, ...)
only hashable types). ✅ Examples:name = ["Akshay", "Dravid", "Sachin"]
 # since sets do not support indexing, they cannot be roll_no = [10, 20, 30]
sliced. marks = [90, 88, 75]
 a={1,2,3}
 a[0:2] mapped = zip(name, roll_no, marks)
print(list(mapped))
🔹 1. Creating / Adding Elements
Output:
Result (Set after [('Akshay', 10, 90), ('Dravid', 20, 88), ('Sachin', 30, 75)]
Method Syntax Example
execution) # Uneven length
Literal {...} a = {1, 2, 3} a = {1, 2, 3} marks = [90]
Empty print(list(zip(name, roll_no, marks)))
set() a = set() a = set()
Set Output:[('Akshay', 10, 90)]
add() [Link](x) [Link](4) a = {1, 2, 3, 4}
[Link]([5, 6], a = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 🔹 2. map()Applies a function to each element of an iterable.
update() [Link](iter)
{7}) 7} Syntax map(function, iterable)
✅ Examples:
🔹 2. Remove Elements def sq(n): return n * n
Method Syntax Example Result nums = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Removes 2, error if not print(list(map(sq, nums)))
remove() [Link](x) [Link](2) Output:[1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
found
Silently does nothing if # Using tuple as output
discard() [Link](x) [Link](10) def square(x): return x * 2
absent
lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Removes and returns
pop() [Link]() [Link]() print(tuple(map(square, lst)))
any item
Output:(2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
clear() [Link]() [Link]() Empties the set
🔹 [Link]():Filters elements where the function returns True.
Syntax filter(function, iterable)
🔹 4. Set Operations ✅ Examples:alphabets = ['a', 'b', 'd', 'a', 'e', 'i', 'j', 'o']
Let a = {1, 2, 3}, b = {3, 4, 5} def filterVowels(char):
Operation Syntax/Example Result return char in ['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u']
b,
Union `a
[Link](b)` filtered = list(set(filter(filterVowels, alphabets)))
Intersection a & b, [Link](b) {3} print(filtered
Output:['o', 'e', 'i', 'a']
lst = [10, 14, 18, 19, 22, 24] 🔹 2. Find All Matches
def checkAge(age): return age > 18 Purpose
print(list(filter(checkAge, lst))) Output/
Method (Definition Example (Code)
Output:[19, 22, 24] Result
)
Returns all
🔹 4. enumerate():Adds a counter to iterable, returns as matching [Link](r"\d+", "There
(index, item) pairs. findall() ['3', '12']
substrings are 3 cats and 12 dogs.")
Syntax enumerate(iterable, start=0) in a list
✅ Examples: Returns [[Link]() for m in
programming = ["Python", "Programming", "Is", "Fun"] iterator of [Link](r"\\b\\w{4}\\
print(list(enumerate(programming))) finditer() ['This', 'test']
match b", "This test has four
Output: objects words.")]
[(0, 'Python'), (1, 'Programming'), (2, 'Is'), (3, 'Fun')]
# Starting index from 100 🔹 3. Replace and Substitute
print(list(enumerate(programming, 100))) Purpose
Output:[(100, 'Python'), (101, 'Programming'), (102, 'Is'), Method Example (Code) Output/Result
(Definition)
(103, 'Fun')]
Replaces all [Link](r"\d+", "#",
sub() matches with "User123 and 'User# and ID#'
🔹 5. sorted():Returns a sorted list from the given iterable.
something else ID456")
Syntax sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False)
Same as sub but
✅ Examples: a = [1, 4, 3, 2, 8] [Link](r"\d+",
also returns ('One# Two#
print(sorted(a)) subn() "#", "One1 Two2
replacement Three#', 3)
print(sorted(a, reverse=True)) Three3")789+
count
Output:[1, 2, 3, 4, 8]
[8, 4, 3, 2, 1]
🔹 4. Split by Pattern
names = ['Guido van Rossum', 'Bjarne Stroustrup', 'James
Gosling'] Purpose
Method Example (Code) Output/Result
print(sorted(names, key=lambda name: [Link]()[-1])) (Definition)
O/p:['James Gosling','Guido van Rossum','Bjarne Stroustrup'] Splits string [Link](r",\\s*",
['apple', 'banana',
split() where the "apple, banana,
'cherry']
🔹 6. max()&min():Returns largest/small item from iterable. pattern matches cherry")
Syntax max(iterable, key=func) / min(iterable, key=func)
✅ Example: 🔹 5. Compile Regex (for Reuse)
studmarks = [('ABC', 35), ('CDE', 25), ('XYZ', 30),('PQR', Purpose
Method Example (Code) Output/Result
20)] (Definition)
print(max(studmarks, key=lambda student: student[1])) Pre-compile pattern =
print(min(studmarks, key=lambda student: student[1])) a pattern to [Link](r"[a-z]+");
compile() ['abc']
Output:('ABC', 35) use multiple [Link]("ABC
('PQR', 20) times abc")

🔹 7. reduce() (from functools):Applies a rolling function to 🔹 6. Match Object Methods

pairs of values cumulatively. text = "Phone: 408-555-1234"
Syntax reduce(function, iterable) m = [Link](r"(\\d{3})-(\\d{3})-(\\d{4})", text)
✅ Example:from functools import reduce Method Purpose (Definition) Example Output/Result
print(reduce(lambda x, y: x + y, [1, 2, 3, 4])) Returns matched
group() [Link]() '408-555-1234'
Output:10 string
Regular Expressions in Python : It is a special pattern used start() Returns start index [Link]() 7
to search, match, or extract text. It helps find specific parts end() Returns end index [Link]() 20
of a string, like phone numbers, capital letters, or words. Returns (start, end)
ex: Find all capital letters: [Link](r"[A-Z]", text) span() [Link]() (7, 20)
tuple
 Find phone no: [Link](r"\d{3}-\d{3}-\d{4}", text) Returns all grouped ('408', '555',
🔹 1. Match Patterns groups() [Link]()
matches '1234')
Purpose group(1) Returns specific group [Link](1) '408'
Method Example (Code) Output/Result
(Definition)
Matches a 🔹 7. Short Regex Patterns
pattern only [Link](r"\d+", Identifiers for Characters in Patterns
match() '123'
at the start "123abc").group() Output /
of the string Character Description Example Pattern Code
Match
Finds the [Link](r"file_\d\d",
[Link](r"[A-Z]", \d Digit (0–9) ['file_25']
first match "file_25")
search() "find A 'A'
anywhere in
letter").group() Alphanumeri [Link](r"\w-\w\w\w",
the string \w ['A-b_1']
c "A-b_1")
Matches the [Link](r"\w+",
fullmatch() 'hello123' \s Whitespace [Link](r"a\sb\sc", "a b ['a b c']
entire string "hello123").group()
 Output /
Character Description Example Pattern Code
Match Pattern Description Example Code Output
c") Match all non-digit [Link](r"[^0-9]", ['a', 'b', 'c',
[Link](r"\D\D\D", [^0-9]
\D Non-digit ['ABC'] characters "a1b2c3!") '!']
"ABC123")
Non- [Link](r"\W\W\W\W\ # Inclusion
\W ['*-+=)']
alphanumeric W", "*-+=)") string='''123345678'''
Non- [Link](r"\S\S\S\S", print([Link](r"[123]",string))
\S ['Yoyo']
whitespace "Yoyo test") SQLite is a small database that stores data in a single
file and doesn't need a server.
📌 Quantifiers Database: it is a place where we store data in an organized
Example Pattern
Character Description Output / Match way so we can use it easily.
Code 🔹 1. Basic Setup
One or more [Link](r"\w-\w+", import sqlite3
+ ['A-b1_1']
times "A-b1_1") conn = [Link]("[Link]") #or ':memory:'for
Exactly 3 [Link](r"\D{3}", temporary
{3} ['abc']
times "abc123")
Between 2 [Link](r"\d{2,4}", 🔹 2. Create Table
{2,4} ['123'] [Link]('''
and 4 times "123")
3 or more [Link](r"\w{3,}", CREATE TABLE COMPANY (
{3,} ['anycharacters'] ID INT PRIMARY KEY NOT NULL,
times "anycharacters")
NAME TEXT NOT NULL,
Zero or [Link](r"A*B*C*",
* ['AAACC'] AGE INT NOT NULL,
more times "AAACC")
ADDRESS CHAR(50),
[Link](r "\ ['name', 'names'] SALARY REAL
Once or
? w+es?","name names" );''')
none
)
🔹 3. Insert Data
📌 Anchors – Start and End [Link]("INSERT INTO COMPANY (ID, NAME,
Pattern Meaning Example Code Output AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY) VALUES (1, 'Paul', 32,
^ Start of string [Link](r"^a", "abc") ['a'] 'California', 20000.0)")
$ End of string [Link](r"c$", "abc") ['c'] [Link]()

🔹 8. Sets, Ranges, and Groups 🔹 4. Select Data

Patter Meanin # All records
Example (Code) Output cursor = [Link]("SELECT * FROM COMPANY")
n g
Match for row in cursor: print(row)
any one [Link](r"[abc]",
[abc] ['b', 'a', 'c', 'a', 'b'] # Fetch all
of a, b, "bravo cab")
or c rows = [Link]()
Match
anything [Link](r"[^0- # Fetch one
[^0-9] ['a', 'b', 'c'] row = [Link]()
not a 9]", "a1b2c3")
digit
# Fetch many
Match either ab or
`(ab cd)` `[Link](r"(ab records = [Link](3)
cd
Match
🔹 5. Update Records
exact
[Link](r"\\ [Link]("UPDATE COMPANY SET SALARY = 25000
\bword\ word
bword\\b", "a word ['word'] WHERE ID = 1")
b using
in a sentence") [Link]()
boundari
es
🔹 6. Delete Records
[Link](r'cat(fish|nap| [Link]("DELETE FROM COMPANY WHERE ID =
`cat(fis
nap)` Match start & stop claw)',t) 2")
h
[Link]()
🔹 9. Useful Flags 🔹 7. Queries & Filters
Flag Purpose Example (Code) Output # WHERE with AND
[Link]("hello", SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE >= 25 AND
re.I Case-insensitive 'HELLO'
"HELLO", re.I).group() SALARY >= 65000;
Multiline mode (^, [Link]("^a", "a\\nb\\na",
re.M ['a', 'a']
$ line-based) re.M) # WHERE with OR
Dot . matches [Link]("a.+b", "a\\n\\ SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE >= 25 OR
re.S 'a\\n\\nb' SALARY >= 65000;
newline nb", re.S).group()
 🔹 1. Joins
# LIKE import sqlite3
SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE NAME LIKE 'Ki%'; db = "[Link]"
conn = [Link](db)
# IN / NOT IN [Link]("PRAGMA foreign_keys = ON;")
SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE IN (25, 27);
SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE NOT IN (25, 🔹 2. Create Tables
27); COMPANY Table
[Link]('''
# BETWEEN CREATE TABLE COMPANY (
SELECT * FROM COMPANY WHERE AGE BETWEEN ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
25 AND 27; NAME TEXT NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
🔹 8. Order & Grouping ADDRESS TEXT,
# ORDER BY SALARY REAL
SELECT * FROM COMPANY ORDER BY SALARY );''')
DESC; DEPARTMENT Table
SELECT * FROM COMPANY ORDER BY NAME; [Link]('''
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT (
# GROUP BY ID INT PRIMARY KEY,
SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM COMPANY DEPT TEXT NOT NULL,
GROUP BY NAME; EMP_ID INT,
FOREIGN KEY (EMP_ID) REFERENCES
🔹 9. Schema Info COMPANY(ID)
[Link]("SELECT name FROM sqlite_schema WHERE );''')
type='table'")
🔹 5. JOINS
🔹 10. Parameterized Queries ✅ CROSS JOIN
[Link]('INSERT INTO languages (subject, marks) [Link]("SELECT EMP_ID, NAME, DEPT FROM
VALUES (?, ?)', ('Python', 300)) COMPANY CROSS JOIN DEPARTMENT;")
📌 All possible combinations (x * y rows)
🔹 11. In-Memory DB Example
con = [Link](":memory:") ✅ INNER JOIN
cur = [Link]() [Link]("SELECT EMP_ID, NAME, DEPT FROM
[Link](""" COMPANY INNER JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
CREATE TABLE samples(id,value); [Link] = DEPARTMENT.EMP_ID;")
INSERT INTO samples(id, value) VALUES 📌 Only matching rows from both tables.
('123','abcdef');
""") ✅ LEFT OUTER JOIN
[Link]("SELECT EMP_ID, NAME, DEPT FROM
🔹 12. Errors Explained COMPANY LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
 table already exists: When trying to create an existing [Link] = DEPARTMENT.EMP_ID;")
table again. 📌 All rows from COMPANY + matched DEPARTMENT
 UNIQUE constraint failed: Duplicate value for a rows (else NULL)
column with PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE.
🔸 6. Indexing
Code:
[Link]("CREATE INDEX idx_salary ON
COMPANY(SALARY);")
Use:Speeds up queries using the SALARY column (like
WHERE, ORDER BY). Improves performance on large
datasets.

🔸 7. ALTER TABLE
Code:
[Link]("ALTER TABLE COMPANY ADD COLUMN
EMAIL TEXT;")
Use:Used to add new columns to an existing table without
dropping or recreating it.

🔸 9. Backup Database
import shutil
[Link]("[Link]", "emp1_backup.db")
Use:Creates a backup copy of your database file for safety or
versioning purposes.
🔷 JSON METHODS (with Examples + Outputs)
📘 What is JSON?
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation):lightweight format for
storing and exchanging data.
 It is easy for humans to read and write
 Easy for machines to parse and generate
 Mostly used in web APIs,config files&data
exchange

✅ JSON Example
{
"name": "VCube",
"technologies": ["C", "Java", "Python"],
"location": "Hyderabad",
"active": true
}
 A string ("name")
 A list ("technologies")
 A boolean (true)

🧠 JSON Rules
Rule Example
Data is in key-
"name": "VCube"
value pairs
Keys are strings "location"
Values can be: string, number, object, array, boolean, null
Arrays use
["C", "Java"]
square brackets
Objects use curly
{ "a": 1 }
brackets
Strings must use
"Hello"
double quotes
Method Description
[Link](json_str) JSON string → Python object/dict
[Link](python_obj) Python object/dict → JSON string
[Link](file) JSON file → Python object
[Link](obj, file) Python object → JSON file
[Link](..., indent) Pretty print JSON
 country {'name': 'India'}

✅ [Link]('rank').text and .get('attribute')

for country in [Link]('country'):
rank = [Link]('rank').text
name = [Link]('name')
print(name, rank)
📤 Output:Singapore 1
India 4

✅ [Link]('attr', value) and [Link]('[Link]')

Purpose: Modify XML values and save the file
for rank in [Link]('rank'):
new_rank = int([Link]) + 1
[Link] = str(new_rank)
[Link]('updated', 'yes')

[Link]('[Link]')
📤 Output in [Link]:<rank updated="yes">2</rank>
🟪 What is XML?
XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is used to store and ✅ [Link](xml_string)
transport data. Purpose: Load XML data directly from a string
It is human-readable and machine-readable — similar to data = '''
HTML but made for data not webpages. <Company>
<name>VCube</name>
✅ XML Example <type>Online</type>
<student> <email id="support@[Link]" mobile="1234-
<name>Rohith</name> 567890"/>
<id>007</id> </Company>'''
<branch>CSE</branch>
</student> tree = [Link](data)
print([Link]('name').text)
print([Link]('email').get('id'))
✅ XML Structure & Rules
📤 Output:VCube
Element Description
support@[Link]
<tag>value</tag> XML uses tags like HTML
Must have 1 root tag All elements are inside a single main tag ✅ Student Example
Attributes Tags can have attributes like id="123" input = '''
Case-sensitive <Name> ≠ <name> <student>
Tags must be closed Every <tag> must have a closing </tag> <user x='1'>
📋 Summary: XML Methods <id>007</id>
Method Description <name>Virat</name>
[Link](file) Parse XML file </user>
<user x='2'>
getroot() Get root element
<id>010</id>
[Link], [Link] Get tag name or attributes <name>Rohith</name>
[Link]('tag').text Get value from sub-element </user>
[Link]('attribute') Get value of an attribute </student>'''
[Link](xml_string) Load XML from string
[Link](attr, val) Update/set an attribute student = [Link](input)
[Link]('[Link]') Save modified XML to file lst = [Link]('user')
[Link]('tag') Find all children with a tag
for user in lst:
[Link]('tag') Iterate through all matching tags
print("Name :", [Link]('name').text)
✅ [Link]('[Link]') + [Link]() print("ID :", [Link]('id').text)
Purpose: Load XML from a file and get root tag print("x :", [Link]('x'))
import [Link] as ET print()
tree = [Link]('country_data.xml') 📤 Output:Name : Virat
root = [Link]() ID : 007
print([Link]) x :1
📤 Output:data
Name : Rohith
✅ [Link], [Link], [Link] ID : 010
for child in root: x :2
print([Link], [Link])
📤 Output Example:country {'name': 'Singapore'} A parser is a program or component that:
 🔍 Reads structured data (like JSON, XML, or programming Method /
Category Description Example Code Snipp
languages) Function
🛠️Analyzes its structure based on grammar or rules Moves file
📦 Converts it into a usable format (like Python objects) Change File seek(offset, pointer to
[Link](5, 0)
PDF: Pointer whence) specified
Method / Function Description Output Type location
PdfReader Automatically
PdfReader("[Link]") Load the PDF file With opens and
object with open(...) as f: with open("[Link]") as f
All the pages in the List of Statement closes file
[Link] safely
PDF PageObject
len([Link]) Total number of pages int Handles errors
Error try...except try: f=open(...) except
[Link][0] Access a specific page PageObject in file
Handling IOError IOError:
operations
Extract text from the
page.extract_text() str File [Link], [Link], Gives file
page print([Link])
Attributes [Link] metadata
for page in
Loop over every page - Lists all files
[Link]
List and
Combine all page text [Link](path) [Link]('.')
"\n".join(list) str Directory directories in
into a single string
a path
def func(pdf_path):
Gets current
pdf=PdfReader(pdf_path) Get Current [Link]() or
working [Link]([Link]
full_text=[] Path [Link](...)
directory
for page in [Link]:
text=page.extract_text() Filters only
Filter .txt [f for f in files if
full_text.append(text) [Link](".txt") text files in
Files [Link](".txt")]
return "/n".join(full_text) directory
print(func("/content/numpy & [Link]")) Read Loop through .txt Reads all .txt for file in fn: open(file,
📋 Python File I/O Methods – Summary Table Multiple .txt files files into a list 'rb').read()
Method / Write and Read a File
Category Description Example Code Snippet
f = open("[Link]", "w")
Function
[Link]("Python is a Programming Language!!!")
Opens a file in
[Link]()
open(filename, the specified
Open a File f = open("[Link]", "r")
mode) mode (r, w, a,
f = open("[Link]", "r")
rb, wb, etc.)
print([Link]())
Writes string [Link]()
to the file
Write Text write(string) [Link]("Hello!") Seek and Tell
(overwrites in f = open("[Link]", "r")
write mode) [Link](5, 0)
Write Writes a list print([Link](10)) # Reads 10 characters from 5th position
[Link](["Python\n",
Multiple writelines(list) of strings to Binary File Write and Read
"Java\n"])
Lines the file # Writing
Reads the full f = open("[Link]", "wb")
Read Entire
read() content of a content = [Link]() [Link](bytearray([5, 10, 15, 20, 25]))
File
file [Link]()
Reads n
Read Fixed
read(n) characters [Link](10) # Reading
Characters
from the file f = open("[Link]", "rb")
Reads a single print([Link]())
Read Line-
readline() line from the line = [Link]() ✅ os Module Functions Used in the PDF
by-Line
file Function Purpose Example from PDF
Read All Reads all lines Returns the
readlines() lines = [Link]()
Lines as a list absolute
Appends text [Link](path) path of the [Link]([Link]())
Append to Open file in 'a' with open("[Link]", "a") as
to the end of given
File mode f: [Link]("Added text")
the file directory
Binary open(..., 'wb') + Writes binary [Link](bytearray([10, 20, Returns the
Write write(bytearray) data to a file 30])) current path =
[Link]()
Reads binary working [Link]([Link]())
open(..., 'rb') + directory
Binary Read data from a data = [Link]()
read()
file [Link](path) or Lists all [Link](path) or [Link]()
Returns [Link]() files and
File Pointer current directories
tell() pos = [Link]() in the
Position position of
file pointer specified
 Function Purpose Example from PDF
path

📌 Code Examples from PDF:

import os

# Get absolute path of current working directory

path = [Link]([Link]())
print(path)

# List files and directories

dir_list = [Link](path)
print("Files and directories in '", path, "' :")
print(dir_list)

📂 Filtering .txt Files from Current Directory:

import os

fn = []
for x in [Link]():
if [Link](".txt"):
[Link](x)
print(fn)