Classnote_Cell_Structure & Function

All living things are made up of cells that make up their body structure. Some of these living things are
single-celled (Unicellular) and other organisms are made up of more than one cell (Multicellular). A cell
is the smallest (microscopic) structural-functional unit of life of an organism. Cells that constitute an
animal are called Animal cells and those that constitute plants are known as Plant cells.
Cell Theory
Cells are the basic units of life, composed of various components that work together to perform
essential functions. All living things are composed of cells. All cells arise from preexisting cells through
cell division. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to daughter cells during cell division.
The chemical composition of all cells is quite similar. The metabolic processes associated with life
occur within cells.
Basic Features of All Cells :
A typical cell consists of a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and a nucleus, along with specialized structures
called organelles that perform specific functions necessary for the cell's life.
 Plasma membrane : a selective barrier which encloses a cell (plant and bacteria cells also contain
a cell wall).
 Cytosol : jelly-like fluid located inside the plasma membrane, that supports organelles and other
cellular components.
 Cytoplasm : the cytosol and all the organelles other than the nucleus.
 Ribosomes : the organelles on which protein synthesis takes place.
 DNA : the genetic material which is contained in one or more chromosomes.
 RNA : produced from the DNA, carries the information from genes to produce proteins in the
ribosomes.
Despite the fact that all cells share the above characteristics, they can be remarkably different in
size, shape and function.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Bacteria and archaebacteria are prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are less organized and less dynamic
than eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes lack the organelles that are found in eukaryotic cells. Organelles are
small, membraneous bodies, each with a specific structure and function. Prokaryotes do have
cytoplasm, the material contained by a plasma membrane and cell wall. The cytoplasm includes
ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis) and enzymes. Prokaryotes also have a nucleoid, a region in the
bacterial cell interior in which the DNA is physically organized but not enclosed by a membrane. Plant,
animal and fungal cells are Eukaryotic Cells. The nucleus in a eukaryotic cell is bound by a nuclear
envelope and contains nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm, found between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus, consists of fluid and the organelles. Many organelles have membranes, such as the nucleolus,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and chloroplast.
Differences between Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cell
Feature Prokaryote Eukaryote
Term Origin Greek for “primitive nucleus” Greek for “true nucleus”
Major groups Bacteria, Archaea, and Bluegreen algae Algae, fungi, protozoa, plants, animals
Origin Around 3.5 billion years ago Around 2 billion years ago
Approximate Cell Size Dia 0.5-3.0 μm Dia >5 μm
Nucleus Location Free in cytoplasm, attached to mesosomes Contained in membrane-bound structure
Nucleolus Absent Present
Chromosome number One More than one
Chromosome shape Circular Linear
Genome Usually haploid Usually diploid, produced by fusion of
haploid gametes
Genome nature Efficient and compact with little With large amounts of non-coding
repetitive DNA repetitive DNA
Chromosome Naked DNA Histone proteins package the DNA into
organization chromatin, which is further organized into
chromosomes during cell division.

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Membrane-bound Absent. Chlorophyll scattered in the Present
Organelles Cytoplasm
(Mitochondria, Golgi
bodies, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, Lysosomes,
Chloroplasts,
Centrosome,
Peroxisomes)
Mesosomes Present. Performs the function of Golgi Absent
bodies and mitochondria and also helps in
the separation of chromosome during cell
division.
Cytoplasmic membrane Does not contain sterols (except Contains sterols
Mycoplasma)
Cell wall Complex structure containing protein, Present for plant cells and fungi; otherwise
lipids, and peptidoglycans absent
Muramic acid Present Absent
Respiration Via cytoplasmic membrane Via mitochondria
Energy production Electron transport chain located in cell Within membrane-bound mitochondria
site membrane
Extrachromosomal Plasmid Inside mitochondria
DNA
DNA replication Occurs in the cytoplasm Occurs in the nucleus
Transcription and Occurs simultaneously Transcription occurs in nucleus and then
translation translation occurs in the cytoplasm
Genetic Partial, unidirectional transfer Meiosis and fusion of gametes
Recombination
Ribosomes Smaller, 70S (50S & 30S) Larger, 80S (60S & 40S)
(sedimentation
coefficient)
Ribosome location Free in the cytoplasm or bound to cell Attached to the rough endoplasmic
membrane reticulum
Components of a Cell
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane (or plasma membrane) is the selective barrier surrounding the cell. It provides a
barrier to the movement of molecules between the intra- and extra-cellular fluids as the cell
membrane surrounds the cell, thereby, separating cellular contents from the surrounding environment.
It also serves to anchor adjacent cells
together and to the extracellular matrix.
Various signals and inputs can alter the
sensitivity and permeability of membranes.
The Fluid Mosaic Model: membrane
structure
The fluid mosaic model of the structure and
dynamics of the plasma membrane (Singer
and Nicolson, 1972) describes the plasma
membrane as a ‘fluid’ phospholipid
bilayer structure and a mosaic of diverse
molecules floating or embedded in it. It is
made up of a double layer of lipids, mainly phospholipids, containing embedded proteins. The non-polar
fatty acid region is organized in the middle (away from water as it is hydrophobic) and the polar
phosphate groups are oriented toward the outside : the extracellular fluid and the cytosol. The
proteins embedded in the membrane are categorized into :

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 Peripheral membrane proteins on the membrane surface,
mainly the cytosolic side where they interact with cytoskeletal
elements in order to influence cell shape and motility. These
proteins are bound to polar regions of the integral proteins.
 Integral membrane proteins span the entire width of the
membrane, thus crossing through both the polar and non-polar
regions of the structure.
Electron micrograph of cell wall.
Cell Wall
An additional non-living layer present outside the cell membrane
in some cells (mostly plants and bacteria) that provides
structure, protection, and filtering mechanism to the cell. Cell
wall is multilayered with a middle lamina consisting of polysaccharides, a primary cell wall, and a
secondary cell wall. The middle lamina provides adhesion and allow binding of the cells to one another.
After the middle lamina is the primary cell wall composed of cellulose. The last layer (not always
present) is the secondary cell wall made of cellulose and
hemicellulose.
In a plant cell, the cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose,
and proteins while in a fungal cell, it is composed of chitin.
Nucleus
Double-membrane bound cell organelle that consists of a nuclear
envelope, chromatin, and nucleolus.
Nuclear membrane (or nuclear envelope) is made of a
phospholipid bilayer, similar to a cell membrane, and is selectively
permeable. The nuclear envelope is similar to the cell membrane
in structure and composition. It has pores that allow the
movement of proteins and RNA in and outside the nucleus.
Nucleoplasm, (or karyoplasms) is a gelatinous substance that
protects the cell’s genetic material.
Electron micrograph of nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum.
A nucleolus is a dense structure within the nucleus composed of
RNA, proteins, granules, and fibers involved in protein synthesis.
Chromatin contains RNA or DNA as genetic material along with
nuclear proteins, that is responsible for carrying the genetic
information.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
They are a network of membrane-bound sac-like structures scattered throughout the cytoplasm. ER
packages and transports proteins to the Golgi apparatus. They are of two types: Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) studded with ribosomes and is thus rough in appearance.
RER participates in protein synthesis, and Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
(SER) without ribosomes with a smooth appearance that synthesizes
carbohydrates, lipids, and steroids.
Golgi apparatus electron micrograph.
Golgi Apparatus
A series of staked membrane-bound organelle form of flattened stacked
pouches known as cisternae, responsible for modifying, packaging, and
transporting proteins and lipids to their destinations within and outside
the cell.
Ribosomes
Consisting of RNA and ribosomal proteins, they are composed of a smaller and a larger subunit.
They are bound to the endoplasmic reticulum or scattered throughout the cytosol, and are the sites
for protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA (mRNA) sequences into amino acid chains. The
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Small Subunit is 30S in Prokaryotes but 40S in Eukaryotes, while the large subunit is 50S in
Prokaryotes but 60S in Eukaryotes. The ‘S’ stands for Svedberg units, a measure of sedimentation
rate, which reflects their size and shape.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are small,
membrane-bound organelles found in nearly all eukaryotic
cells. Each mitochondrion is enclosed by an outer membrane
and an inner membrane. The inner membrane has several
folds called cristae in order to increase the surface area
available for energy production via oxidative
phosphorylation. It also contains a variety of enzymes
including ATP synthase which generates ATP. The area
enclosed by the inner mitochondrial membrane is called the
matrix which contains the enzymes of the Krebs (TCA) and
fatty acid cycles. The outer membrane contains proteins
known as porins, which allow inflow and outflow of ions.
Mitochondria is a semiautonomous organelle i.e., they have
some genes which form some of their proteins.
Plastids
Plastids are usually oval or spherical with an outer and an
inner membrane between which lies the intermembrane space.
The inner membrane enclosed a matrix called stroma that
contains small structures called grana. Each granum consists
of several sac-like thylakoids piled one on the other and
connected by stroma lamellae. Like mitochondria, they also
contain DNA and RNA. Depending on the type of pigments
they contain, plastids are differentiated into 3 types : Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
chlorophyll that helps in storing light energy during photosynthesis. Chromoplasts incorporate fat-
solvent, antioxidant shades like xanthophylls, and carotene.
Leucoplasts are colorless plastids that store nutrients in
them. Among them, Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (like
starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins, and
elaioplasts store oils and fats.
Centrosome
Prewent in animal cells, the Centrosome is the main
microtubule-organizing center (MTOC), involved in organizing
the microtubule cytoskeleton and coordinating cell division.
Two Centrioles – cylindrical structures arranged orthogonally
are derived from the centrosome before cell division. Each
centriole is ~200 nm diameter, ~400–500 nm length, made of
nine triplet microtubules arranged in a ring. One centriole is
the older “mother” centriole (has distal and subdistal
appendages); the other is the “daughter” centriole. During
cell division, the two centrioles move to opposite sides of the
nucleus to form bipolar poles of the mitotic spindle, ensuring
correct chromosome attachment and segregation. They also
position the organelles (Golgi, ER) and influence cell polarity,
migration, and asymmetric cell division.
Cilia and Flagella
Present in the outer part of the cell wall. They help in the
movement of the cell. Cilia are hair-like projections while

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Flagella are a bit bigger than the cilia. Anoxene is the core of both cilia and flagella, which contain
Nine Peripheral Microtubules and one set of central microtubules. The mother centriole can dock at
the plasma membrane to become a basal body, to form the primary cilium/flagellum.
Summary of the Cellular Organelles
Organelle Description Function
Cell Wall Contains cellulose or chitin Protection, support
Plasma Outer layer, regulates what passes in and out of
Lipid bilayer with embedded proteins
Membrane cell
Surrounded by double membrane, contains
Nucleus Control center of cell, directs protein synthesis
chromosomes
Nucleolus Site of genes for rRNA synthesis Assembles ribosomes
Endoplasmic Forms compartments and vesicles, Synthesis and
Network of internal membranes
reticulum (ER) modification of proteins and lipids
Rough ER Contains ribosomes Protein synthesis
Smooth ER Lacks ribosomes Synthesis of lipids
Golgi Packages proteins for export, forms secretory
Stacks of flattened vesicles
Apparatus vesicles
Vesicle Membrane-bound sac Stores and transports substances
Lysosome Contains hydrolytic digestive enzymes Digests macromolecules and cell debris
Peroxisome Contains oxidative and other enzymes Breaks down fatty acids
Central Vacuole Storage compartment for water, sugars ions,
Large membrane-bound sac in plants
(Plants) pigment
Mitochondrion Bacteria-like element with double membrane Carries out cellular respiration, produces ATP
Chloroplast
Bacteria-like element Site of photosynthesis
(Plants)
Cytoskeleton Network of protein filaments Structural support, cell movement
Cilia and
19+2 pattern of microtubules Motility
flagella
Centrioles
Occur in pairs, composed of microtubules Anchor and assemble microtubules
(Animals)