RENEWABLE ENERGY SOUCES (25BEELY103/203)

MODULE-2
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar Energy: Fundamentals; Solar Radiation; Estimation of solar radiation on horizontal and inclined
surfaces; Solar radiation Measurements- Pyrheliometers, Pyrometer, Sunshine Recorder. Solar Thermal
systems: Flat plate collector; Solar distillation; Solar pond electric power plant.
Solar electric power generation- Principle of Solar cell, Photovoltaic system for electric power generation,
advantages, Disadvantages and applications of solar photovoltaic system.

Introduction
 Solar energy is an important, clean, and abundantly available renewable energy. Solar radiation,
often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by the sun. The Sun‟s energy comes from nuclear fusion reaction that takes place deep in
the sun.
 Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity.
 The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases. Its diameter is 1.39x106 KM. While that of the earth
is 1.27x104 KM. The mean distance between the two is 1.5x108 KM. The beam radiation received
from the sun on the earth is reflected in to space, another 15 % is absorbed by the earth
atmosphere and the rest is absorbed by the earth‟s surface.

 Solar Constant “The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is
called solar constant Isc”. This is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area
perpendicular to the sun‟s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.

 The National Aeronautics and Space Administration‟s (NASA) standard value the solar constant,
expressed in three common units, is as follows: (i) 1.353 kilowatts per square meter (ii)
116.5 Langley's per hour (1 Langley's being equal to 1 cal /cm2 of solar radiation received in one
day) (iii) 429.2 Btu per [Link]. per hour.

Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface

 The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:
 Atmospheric effects, including absorption and scattering;
 local variations in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, clouds, and pollution;
 latitude of the location; and
 The season of the year and the time of day.
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 As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by: Air
molecules, Water vapor, Clouds, Dust and Pollutants, This is called diffuse solar radiation. The
solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called direct beam
solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar radiation is called global solar
radiation.
 Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatt-hours per
square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also be expressed as watts per
square meter (W/m2).

Solar Radiation Geometry

Solar altitude angle:

• Altitude Angle is the angle between the Sun‘s rays and projection of the Sun’s rays on
the horizontal plane.

Zenith angle(θz):
• It is Complementary angle of Sun‘s Altitude angle

• It is a vertical angle between Sun‘s rays and line perpendicular to the horizontal plane
through the point i.e. angle between the beam and the vertical.

• Θz=π/2-α

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Solar Azimuth Angle (γs):

• It is the horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal projection of sun‘s rays.

Declination (δ):
• It is the angle between a line extending from the center of the Sun and center of the
earth and projection of this on earth‘s equatorial plane.

• The declination is given by the formula

Where n is the day of the year

Meridian:
 Meridian is the imaginary line passing through a point or place on earth and north and
south poles of the earth‘.

hour angle(ω):
 Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring meridian of the
point directly in line with the sun‘s rays.

 Hour angle is equal to 15o per hour.

slope(β):
 Angle between the collector surfaces with the horizontal plane is called slope (β).

surface azimuth angle(γ):

 Angle between the normal to the collector and south direction is called surface azimuth
angle(γ)

Solar Incident angle(θ):

 It is the angle between an incident beam radiation falling on the collector and normal
to the plane surface

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Solar Radiation Measuring Instruments

Pyrheliometer
 The pyrheliometer is one type of instrument, used to measure the direct beam of solar radiation at
the regular occurrence. This instrument is used with a tracking mechanism to follow the sun
continuously. It is responsive to wavelengths bands that range from 280 nm to 3000 nm. The units
of irradiance are W/m².
 Three types pyrheliometer are
1. The Angstrom pyrheliometer
2. The Abbot Silver Disc pyrheliometer
3. Eppley pyrheliometer
1. Angstrom Pyrheliometer

Figure: Angstrom Pyrheliometer

 Angstrom pyrheliometer consists of two identical strips S1 and S2 of area A. One junction of a
thermocouple is connected to S1 and the other junction is connected to S2. A sensitive galvanometer
is connected to the thermo couple.
 Strip S2 is connected to an external electrical circuit as shown in Fig.. When both the strips S1 and
S2 are shielded from the solar radiation, galvanometer shows no deflection as both the junctions
are at the same temperature.
 Now strip S1 is exposed to the solar radiation and S2 is shielded with a cover M. As strip S1
receives heat radiations from the sun, its temperature rises and hence the galvanometer shows
deflection. Now current is allowed to pass through the strip S2 and it is adjusted so that
galvanometer shows no deflection. Now, the strips S1 and S2 are again at the same temperature.
 If the quantity of heat radiation that is incident on unit area in unit time on strip S1 is Q and, then
the amount of heat radiations absorbed by the strip S1 in unit time is QA.

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 Also, heat produced in unit time in the strip S2 is given by VI, where V is the potential difference
and I is the current flowing through it.

As heat absorbed = heat produced

QA = VI (or)

Q=VI/A

2. Pyrometer
 A pyrometer is a noncontact device and it is also known as a radiation thermometer. The main
function of this instrument is to detect the surface temperature of an object by measuring the
temperature of the electromagnetic radiation generated from the object.

 The shape of the pyrometer is cylindrical and inside parts of the optical pyrometer mainly include
eyepiece, power source, absorption screen, and red filter.
 An eyepiece and the lens of an object are arranged at both sides of the device.
 A battery, millivolt meter & rheostat are connected to a temperature bulb.
 An absorption screen is arranged in the middle of the reference temperature lamp and the
objective lens to increase the temperature range and his range can be measured with the help of
the device.
 The red filter is placed in between the lamp and eyepiece so that the lamp allows simply a narrow
band with 0.65mui wavelength.
 An optical pyrometer uses this radiation to measure the temperature of the object. The brightness
of the measured object is compared with the brightness of the lamp at a reference temperature.

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 The reference temperature is produced by the lamp whose brightness can be adjusted using
rheostat as shown in the above figure.
 The radiation from the source is captured by the optical lens. The lens helps in focusing the
thermal radiation on the lamp. The observer starts observing the brightness of the lamp filament.
The filament of the reference lamp is superimposed on the temperature of the source. The observer
starts changing the rheostat value.
 There may be three possibilities, such as
 When the filament is “DARK“. Then the source object is hotter than the reference
temperature or we can say that the filament temperature is cooler than the source
temperature.
 When the filament is “BRIGHT“. Then the source object is cooler than the reference
temperature or we can say that the filament temperature is hotter than the source
temperature.
 When the filament “DISAPPEARS“. So we can say that the temperature of the
source object and reference temperature is the same.

3. Sunshine recorder

 A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at a given location. The
results provide information about the weather and climate as well as the temperature of a
geographical area.

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 The recorder consists essentially of a glass sphere of about 10 cm in diameter mounted

concentrically in a-spherical metallic bowl (B) which itself is mounted on a marble base. The inner
surface of the bowl is flanged to take 3 sets of special cards for use at different periods of the year.

 The rays of the sun when focused sharply on the card burn a trace on the card gradually. The
length of the burn indicates the duration of sunshine. Which is read off the hour marks printed on
the cards.

 Duration of bright Sunshine hours can be analyzed by measuring length of burnt trace.
 Intensity of solar radiation will be measured based on width of burnt trace.
 If there is a continuous burnt symptom it indicates a bright day. If there is intermittent
burnt symptom it indicates cloudy day.

Solar Collectors
 Solar collectors are the devices used to collect solar radiation. Generally there are two
types of solar collectors. They are 1) Non-concentrating type or Flat plate collector and 2)
Concentrating orFocusing collector.
 In a non-concentrating type the area of the absorber is equals the area of the collector and
since the radiation is not focused, the maximum temp achieved in this type is about 100°
C.
 Concentrating type the area of the absorber is very small as compared to the collector
area. This results radiation is focused to point or a line the maximum temp achieved is
about 350°C.

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Flat plate collector (FPC):

 A Flat plate collector is a solar panel device that uses solar energy to generate thermal energy. It
converts solar power into thermal energy.
 A Flat plate solar collector takes in solar radiation and transmits heat to the functioning medium.
It is suitable for several thermal applications. The average temperature range of FPC devices is
100° C. Besides, these devices have an economical cost of investment.

 These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:

 Absorber plate (Black surface) - absorbent of the incident solar energy. The absorber plate is
made of good conducting material like aluminum or copper. It is coated black to
increase its absorption property.
 Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents
radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
 Tubes- containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
 Insulation -covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses. Mineral wool, glass
wool, fiber glass, asbestos thermocol etc. are used as insulator.
 The working of a flat plate collector (FPC) involves the transfer of heat or thermal energy. The
operating medium exchanges heat from the sun‟s rays.
 The heat-absorbing plate of the collector is exposed to sunlight. As the sun rays hit the flat plate
surface, a portion of their energy is transformed into heat. This leads to a rise in the temperature
of the flat plate solar collector.

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 When a fluid is passed inside the collector, the temperature of the fluid increases as the heat from
the absorbing plate heat is transmitted to the fluid.
 Eventually, the fluid transmits the thermal energy from collectors to the functioning energy
systems for different uses. It works on the principles of the 1st & 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics.

Solar distillation
 Solar water distillation is the process of using energy from the sunlight to separate freshwater
from salts or other contaminants. The untreated water absorbs heat, slowly reaching high
temperatures. The heat causes the water to evaporate, cool, and condense into vapour, leaving the
contaminants behind.
 Solar water distillers or solar stills are usually used in remote areas where there is limited access
to freshwater. The basic principles of solar water distillation are simple, yet effective, as
distillation replicates the way nature makes rain.
 A solar still works on two scientific principles: evaporation and condensation.

 Most stills are simple black bottomed vessels filled with water and topped with clear
glass or plastic.
 Sunlight that is absorbed by the black material speeds the rate of evaporation.
 The evaporation is then trapped by the clear topping and funneled away. Most
pollutants do not evaporate, so they are left behind.
 The evaporated water increases the moisture content, which gets condensed on the cooler
underside of the glass. The condensed water slips down the slope and is collected through the
condensate channel attached to the glass.
 Multiple solar distillation systems are required to produce a large quantity of distilled
water.

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Solar Pond

 A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size, that looks like a pond.
 The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is heated they
become lighter and rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the sun‟s
rays heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top but loses
the heat into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at the atmospheric
temperature.
 The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond making it
too heavy to rise.
 When solar radiation strikes the pond, most of it is absorbed by the surface at the bottom of the
pond. The temperature of the dense salt layer therefore increases. But the salt density difference
keeps the „layers‟ of the solar pond separate. The denser salt water at the bottom prevents the heat
being transferred to the top layer of fresh water by natural convection, due to which the
temperature of the lower layer may rise to as much as 95°C.
 The trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn from the pond in the form of hot brine from the
storage zone.
 The hot brine from the solar pond is circulated through a heat exchanger with help of a pump.
 In the heat exchanger, the heat of hot brine is absorbed by Freon and Freon vapors are generated
at high pressure.
 This vapor drives the turbine to drive it and a coupled generator with it.
 The Freon vapor from the turbine condensed in a condenser with the help of cold water.
 The Freon condensate is pumped again into the heat exchanger and the complete cycle is repeated.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION

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 The devices used in photovoltaic conversion are called Solar Cells.

 When solar radiation falls on these devices, it is converted directly into dc electricity.
 The principal advantages associated with solar cells are that they have no moving parts, require
little maintenance, and work quite satisfactorily with beam or diffuse radiation.
 As a result of these developments, solar cells are now being used extensively in many consumer
products and appliances, and it is possible that in the future they may become one of the
important sources of power for providing small amounts of electrical energy for localized use,
particularly in remote areas.
 Various materials have been used and many types of solar cells have been developed. However,
more than 90 per cent of the current production of of solar cells is from single crystal and multi
crystalline silicon only.

Photovoltaic (PV) or Solar Cell:

 It is a device that converts solar energy into electric current using the photoelectric effect.
 Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels, composed of number of solar cells
containing photovoltaic material. Photovoltaic are made up of semiconductors & it converts solar
radiation into direct current electricity.

 Photo-voltaic cell is made up of semi-conductor materials like silicon one layer has n-type silicon
and another layer has P-type silicon and interface between n-type and p-type silicon is called p-n
junction.
 In a p-n junction semi-conductor material, electrons from n-side tend to move towards P-side
rapidly combine with large number of holes concentration.
 Similarly holes from P-side tend to move towards n-side rapidly combine with large number of
electron concentration, this charge distribution across the junction gives rise to electrical field.
 When a P-n junction semi-conductor material exposed to the sunlight some of the solar photons will
have a tendency to dislodge free-electrons from its fixed position in the material.
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 Ejected free-electrons tend to move towards p-side and this flow negatively charged electrons
constitute an electric current.

Advantages of solar energy

 Solar energy is inexhaustible and most abundant source of energy available freely in nature.

 It is an environmental clean source of energy.

 Since solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, it can be used for wide range
of applications.

Disadvantages of solar energy

 The availability of solar energy varies with time and weather conditions.

 Collection of solar energy is a difficult problem. Hence special components are required to
collect the solar energy.

Applications
1. Solar Farms - Many acres of PV panels can provide utility-scale power—from tens of megawatts to
more than a Giga watt of electricity.
2. Remote Locations - It is not always cost-effective, convenient, or even possible to extend power lines
to locations where electricity is needed.
3. Stand-Alone Power - In urban or remote areas, PV can power stand-alone devices, tools, and
meters.
4. Power in Space - From the beginning, PV has been a primary power source for Earth-orbiting
satellites.
5. Building-Related Needs - In buildings, PV panels mounted on roofs or ground can supply electricity.
6. Military Uses - Lightweight, flexible thin-film PV can serve applications in which portability or
ruggedness are critical.
7. Solar Cooker, Solar Watches
8. Traffic Signals
9. Street Lights

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