• A current which ows with constant • Alternating Current and

magnitude in the same direction is Voltage:

called direct current (d.c.).
An alternating current or
• A battery is a source of emf in d.c. voltage is that current or
circuits. voltage whose magnitude
changes with time and
direction reverses
periodically.

The instantaneous value of

alternating current is given
by I = I0 sin ωt where I0 is
the maximum current called
amplitude of current and ω
is the angular frequency.
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Similarly, the instantaneous voltage is
• Peak value of AC:
given by V = V0 sin ωt where V0 is The maximum value or the amplitude of AC
the amplitude (maximum value) of is called its peak value. If I = I0 sin ωt is the
voltage. instantaneous current in an ac circuit, I0 is
called peak value of current. Similarly, if
If f is the frequency of the alternating V = V0 sin ωt is the instantaneous voltage,
current or voltage whose time period
V0 is called the peak value of voltage.
is T, then we have
During the positive cycle of ac, the ac attains
1 2π positive peak value; i.e. the current attains
f= and ω = 2πf =
T T +I0 and the voltage attains +V0. Similarly,
during the negative cycle of ac, the ac
attains negative peak value; i.e. the current
attains −I0 and the voltage attains −V0.
• 2081 Set D Mean or Average value of AC:
Observing the given graph, The average or mean value of ac over
answer the following one complete cycle is zero. Therefore,
questions: we nd the average value of ac only for
a half cycle.
i. What is the value of the
current I when time is The average value of ac over a half
5ms? cycle is de ned as that value of steady
current which when passed through a
ii. What is the period T for circuit would send the same amount of
the complete cycle? charge in time T/2 (half of time period T)
as is done by the alternating current in
iii. What is the frequency of the same circuit in the same time.
the given ac?

(Ans: 2A, 20ms 500Hz)

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T

[ ω ]0
cos ωt 2
or, q = I0 −
Let, an alternating current I = I0 sin ωt
passes through a circuit. The charge that

ω[ ]
passes through the circuit in small time dt is I0 T
or, q =− cos ω × − cos ω × 0
given by 2

[ ] ( T)
dq = Idt = I0 sin ωtdt I0 2π T 2π
or, q =− cos × − cos 0 ∵ω=
ω T 2
The total charge that passes through the
T I0
circuit in a half cycle (i.e. for t = 0 to t = ) is or, q = − [cos π − cos 0]
2 ω
obtained as I0 2I0
or, q = − [−1 − 1] =
T T ω ω

∫ ∫0 0 ∫0
2 2
q = dq = I sin ωt = I0 sin ωt 2I0
or, q =
ω
 If Iav be the average value of ac over a • Root Mean Square (RMS) value of ac:
half cycle, then
Since the average or mean value of ac
q 2I 2 over one complete cycle is zero, it can not
Iav = = 0×
(2)
T ω T be used for calculating power. For this, a
more appropriate quantity is de ned
which is known as Root Mean Square
1 2 T 2 (RMS) value.
or, Iav = 2I0 × × = 2I0 × ×
ω T 2π T
2I0
or, Iav = = 0.637 × I0
π
Thus, the average or mean value of
current over a half cycle of ac is 63.7%
of peak value.

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The root mean square value (rms) value of an or, dH = I02R sin2 ωtdt
ac is de ned as that steady current which
when passed through a given resistance for The total amount of heat produced in one complete
a given time produces the same amount of cycle (i.e. for time t = 0 to t = T) is
heat as produced by the ac when passed
through the same resistance for the same T

∫ ∫0 0
time. H = dH = I 2R sin2 ωtdt
Let us suppose an alternating current T

∫0
I = I0 sin ωt passes through a resistance R. or, H = I0 R sin2 ωtdt
2

The amount of heat produced in small time

∫0 ( )
T
dt is given by 1 − cos 2ωt
or, H = I02R dt
2 2 2
dH = I Rdt = (I0 sin ωt) Rdt
As cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
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 I02R T If Irms is the root mean square value of ac, which
2 ∫0
or, H = (1 − cos 2ωt) dt when passed through the same resistance R for the
same time T produces same amount of heat H.
T T
I02R
2 ( ∫0 ∫0 )
2
or, H = dt − cos 2ωtdt So, H = Irms RT ……….(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we get
T

∫0
Here, dt = [t]T0 = T 2
I02RT
Irms RT =
2

[ 2ω ]
T T
sin 2ω I02
∫0
and cos 2ωtdt = =0 2
or, Irms =
0 2
I02RT I0
So, H = ………….(i) ∴ Irms = = 0.707I0
2 2

Thus, rms value of ac is 0.707

times the peak value.

Similarly, the rms value of

voltage is
V0
Vrms = = 0.707V0
2
• 2081 GIE Set B: Why is 220V
ac more dangerous than
220V dc? Explain. [2]

• 2081 Set D: De ne peak

value of an ac. How it is
related to rms value of the
ac? [2]
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• Wave diagram: The graphical
representation of
An alternating current is represented by current and
I = I0 sin ωt. voltage in a circuit
along with their
If we plot a graph between I and ωt, the phase di erence is
curve will be the sine curve with called wave
amplitude I0. diagram.

Such a graphical representation of

alternating current is called the waveform
of current.

Similarly, the alternating voltage in a

circuit can also be expressed graphically.

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• Phasor diagram: • AC through Resistor:
The instantaneous value Let an alternating current
of a quantity which varies
sinusoidally with time is I = I0 sin ωt is owing through a
represented as the resistor of resistance R. The p.d.
projection of a rotating across the resistor is
vector.
VR = RI = RI0 sin ωt
In ac circuits, rotating
vectors representing or, VR = V0 sin ωt
current and voltage are
called phasors and the where V0 = I0R is the peak value of
diagram containing them the voltage.
is called phasor diagram.
The current and the voltage are in
same phase.
Wave diagram
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 • AC through an inductor:
Let an alternating current I = I0 sin ωt is
passed through an inductor of inductance
L as shown in gure. I a b

The induced emf in the direction of I is I = I0 sin ωt

dI
given by E = − L . If we consider the
dt
current in the inductor I the direction from a
to b and is increasing, the induced emf is
directed to left to oppose the increase in
current; so point a is at higher potential
than point b.

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( 2)
Thus the potential di erence across the inductor is equal to π
dI Or, VL = V0 sin ωt +
negative of the induced emf and is given by VL = − E = + L .
dt
Therefore in an inductor
d d
Or, VL = L (I0 sin ωt) = I0L (sin ωt) voltage leads the current by
π
dt dt phase angle (current lags
2
Or, VL = I0Lω cos ωt = I0XL cos ωt behind voltage by phase
π
angle ).
where XL = Lω = 2πLf is the inductive reactance, it 2
represents e ective opposition of the coil to the ow of ac.
The instantaneous voltage
π across the inductor is
Or, VL = V0 cos ωt = V0 sin(ωt + )
2 VL = IXL.
Wave diagram
whereV0 = I0XL is the peak value of voltage.
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 V = V0 sin ωt

( 2)
π
I = I0 sin ωt −

Phasor diagram
Wave diagram

• AC through a capacitor:
Let an alternating current I = I0 sin ωt is passed
through a capacitor of capacitance C.

During the positive half cycle of the ac, the plates

of the capacitor are charged in one direction and
during negative half cycle, they are charged in the
opposite direction. As a result alternating current
ows through the circuit.

If Q is the charge stored in the capacitor at any

instant of time, then, p.d. across it at that instant
Q
is VC =
C
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 Or, VC = − V0 cos ωt
dQ
As I =

( 2)
dt π
Or, VC = V0 sin ωt −
dQ = Idt = I0 sin ωtdt
where V0 = I0 XC is the peak value
∫ ∫ ∫
Or, Q = dQ = I0 sin ωtdt = I0 sin ωtdt of voltage.

I0 In capacitor, voltage lags behind the

Or, Q =−
cos ωt π
ω current by phase angle (current
2 π
I0 leads voltage by phase angle ).
∴ VC = − cos ωt = − I0 XC cos ωt 2
Cω
1 1 The instantaneous voltage across
where XC = = is the capacitive reactance, and it the capacitor is VC = IXC.
Cω 2πCf Wave diagram
represents e ective opposition of the capacitor to the ow of ac.
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IC

Wave diagram
Phasor diagram
 • AC through LCR in series:
Consider an ac circuit containing a
resistor of resistance R, an inductor of
inductance L, and a capacitor of
capacitance C as shown in gure.

Let I = I0 sin ωt be the instantaneous

current in the circuit, VR, VL, and VC
be the instantaneous potential
di erence across R, L, and C
respectively. Also let V be the
instantaneous potential di erence
across LCR in series.

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We have

p.d. across R, VR = IR, VR is in same

phase with I

p.d. across L, VL = IXL, VL leads I by

π
phase angle
2
p.d. across C, VC= IXC, VC lags
π
behind I by phase angle .
2

Phasor diagram
 For VL > VC, the p.d. across the LCR is

V= VR2 + (VL − VC)2

Or, V = (IR)2 + (IXL − IXC)2

Or, V = I 2[R 2 + (XL − XC)2 ]

Or, V = I R 2 + (XL − XC)2

Phasor diagram V
Or, = R 2 + (XL − XC)2
I

The impedance of the circuit,

The voltage V leads the current I by phase
V angle ϕ given by
Z = = R 2 + (XL − XC)2 where
I
( VR )
1 1 VL − VC
XL = Lω = 2πLf and XC = = ϕ = tan−1
Cω 2πCf

( R )
It measures the overall (or total) opposition of the XL − XC
circuit to the alternating current. It is equivalent to
Or, ϕ = tan−1
resistance in a dc circuit. Phasor diagram
If the instantaneous current is I = I0 sin ωt,
then the instantaneous voltage is
V = V0 sin(ωt + ϕ).
ϕ V
[If V = V0 sin ωt, then, I = I0 sin(ωt − ϕ)]
I
• Wave diagram for voltage leads current
• For Vc > VL, XC > XL the phasor
diagram is shown in gure. Current I
I leads the voltage V by phase
angle ϕ (V lags behind I).
V

( R )
−1
XC − XL
• ϕ = tan

• If I = I0 sin ωt, then,

V = V0 sin(ωt − ϕ)
I
• If V = V0 sin ωt, then,
ϕ
I = I0 sin(ωt + ϕ)
V

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• Wave diagram for current leads
voltage • 2080 Set P
a. De ne impedance of LCR circuit. [1]

b. A device X is connected across an ac source of

voltage V = V0 sin ωt and the current through X is

( 2)
π
given byI = I0 sin ωt + .

i. Identify, which device is X? Also write the

expression for its reactance. [2]

ii. Draw graphs showing the variation of voltage and

current with time over one cycle of an alternating
current for X. [1]
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 • 2079 Set V • 2082
An inductor, a capacitor and a resistor are The gure shows a series LCR circuit. If
connected in series along with a source of
alternating voltage. R = 100Ω, L = 100mH, C = 2μF and
500
the frequency of an ac source is Hz
a. Derive a relationship between the current π
and voltage. [3] then,

b. Draw phasor diagram to show the lagging i. Calculate the phase angle between
or leading relationship of voltage and current and voltage. (Ans:67.16°) [2]
current in the circuit connection. [2]
ii. Which one leads in phase, current or
voltage? Justify. [1]

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• 2080 GIE Set A • 2080 GIE Set B
A series LCR circuit is as shown in the
gure 220 V, 50Hz An iron cored coil 2.0 H and 50 Ω resistance
=8Ω
i. Calculate impedance of the circuit. [2] placed in series with a resistor of 450 Ω and
ii. Current in the circuit. [1] 220 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply is connected across
iii. Voltage across resistor R. [1] the arrangement.
(Ans: 8.93 Ω, 24.64 A, 197 V)
i. Find the current owing in the coil. [1]
= 300 nH
= 800μF ii. Find its phase angle relative to the
voltage supply. [1]

iii. Calculate the voltage across the coil. [1]

(Ans: 0.27A, 15.5°, 125.64V)

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• 2079 Set O, Set V • Resonance in LCR series circuit:
A circuit consists of a capacitor of 2μF and a The impedance of LCR series circuit is
resistor of 1000Ω. An alternating emf of 12V Z= R 2 + (XL − XC)2
(rms) and frequency 50Hz is applied. Find the
current owing, the voltage across capacitor

( 2πCf )
2
and the phase angle between the applied emf 1
and current. (Ans: 6.38 × 10−3A, 57.9°) [3] Or, Z = R 2 + 2πLf −

In the series LCR circuit, R = 25Ω, The impedance of the circuit depends
L = 30mH and C = 10μF. And these upon the frequency of the ac source.
elements are connected to 240 volts, 50 Hz ac At certain frequency the impedance of
source. Calculate the current in the circuit and the circuit becomes minimum and the
voltmeter reading across the capacitor. (Ans: current in the circuit is maximum.
0.774A, 246.37V) [3]
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This peaking or maximization of 1
current in the circuit at certain Or, fr =
frequency is called resonance. And the 2π LC
frequency at which the resonance
peak occurs is called the resonance This expression gives the resonant
frequency. frequency of the LCR series circuit.
At resonance the inductive and At resonance, the voltages across the
capacitive reactances are equal. So, inductor and capacitor are equal and
since they always di er in phase by
XL = XC 180°, the voltage across the resistor is
equal to the source voltage (purely
If fr is the resonant frequency of the
circuit resistive circuit). So the circuit behaves
as if the inductor and capacitor were
1 not there at all.
2πLfr =
2πCfr
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 At frequencies below resonance, XC is • Uses of LCR series resonance:
greater than XL; the capacitive
reactance dominates, the voltage lags It is used in radio receivers and television
the current. sets to select a speci c frequency from a
range of signals.
At frequencies above resonance, XL is
Can be used as voltage ampli cation:
greater than XC; the inductive reactance Due to low impedance ( resulting high
dominates, the voltage leads the current ) at resonance, the voltage across
current. the capacitor or inductor can be several
times higher than the input supply
voltage, which is commonly used in high-
voltage generation circuits.

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• 2081 GIE Set B: • 2080 Set P:
In the given gure, an inductor of 50V,50Hz
A series LCR circuit is given in gure.
inductance L, a capacitor of capacitance
C, a resistor of resistance R are i. Calculate the impedance of the
connected in series and the combination
is then connected to an alternating source circuit if L = 60mH, and
of emf. C = 0.5μF and R = 300Ω. (Ans:
6357.6Ω) [2]
i. Draw a phase diagram for the circuit.
[1] ii. How does resonance occurs in the
ii. Calculate impedance of the circuit. given LCR circuit? Write the
[2] required expression. [2]

iii. If L = 0.5H and C = 20μF, nd the

resonant frequency of the circuit. [2]
(Ans: 50.35Hz)
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 • Quality factor:
The quality factor (or Q-factor), is a
dimensionless parameter that
measures the sharpness of
resonance and quanti es the quality
of a resonator, indicating the strength
of damping.

The Q-factor at resonance is

calculated as
VL X 2πfr L 2πL 1
Q= = L = = ×
VR R R R 2π LC
1 L
Or, Q =
R C
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• Power in ac circuit:
• 2080 Set R:
In any ac circuit, the instantaneous current and
a. De ne root mean square value of ac. [2] voltage are

b. The given gure shows the LCR series I = I0 sin ωt,

circuit.
f
i. Obtain the expression for impedance
V = V0 sin(ωt ± ϕ)
of the circuit. [2]
Where ϕ is the phase angle
ii. What is resonance in LCR series
circuit? [1] The instantaneous power Pins is given by

iii. Calculate the resonant frequency. [2] Pins = IV

iv. What is quality factor of the circuit? [1]
Pins = [I0 sin ωt][V0 sin(ωt ± ϕ)]
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 T T

∫0 ∫0
Or, Pins = I0V0 sin ωt[sin ωt cos ϕ ± cos ωt sin ϕ)] Or, W = I0V0 cos ϕ sin2 ωtdt ± I0V0 sin ϕ cos ωt sin ωtdt
Or, Pins = I0V0 cos ϕ sin2 ωt ± I0V0 sin ϕ cos ωt sin ωt T
T
∫0
The energy consumed (small work done) in a small time dt is Here, sin2 ωtdt =
2
dW = Pinsdt T

∫0
Now, the total energy consumed in one cycle is calculated by
And cos ωt sin ωtdt = 0
T
T
∫0
W= dW So, W = I0V0 cos ϕ ×
2
T W T
∫0
Or, W = (I0V0 cos ϕ sin2 ωt ± I0V0 sin ϕ cos ωt sin ωt)dt The average power, Pav = = I0V0 cos ϕ ×
T 2

I0 V0 • 2080 GIE Set B: De ne power factor. [2]

Or, Pav = cos ϕ
2 2 • Power factor (cos ϕ):
Or, Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos ϕ Power factor is the e ciency of power uses in ac
circuit.
The factor cos ϕ is called the power factor.
It measures how e ectively electrical power is
The factor Irms × Vrms is called apparent power. converted into useful work output,

Therefore, the average power is equal to the It is de ned as the ratio of real power to apparent
product of apparent power and the power factor. power.

Average power Its value ranges from 0 to 1, a high power factor (near
Thus, Power factor = 1) indicates e cient energy usage, while a low power
Apparent power factor signi es ine cient energy consumption.
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We have,
R 2
Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos ϕ P
• av = Irms × Vrms × = Irms R
Z
2
Or, Irms R = Irms × Vrms × cos ϕ
Or, IrmsR = Vrms × cos ϕ • 2079 GIE Set A
Or, IrmsR = IrmsZ × cos ϕ (as Vrms = IrmsZ ) A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac
power supply with 120V, 60Hz. If R = 50Ω,
Or, R = Z × cos ϕ L = 0.3H and C = 8μF, what is average
power dissipated? ( Ans: 6.84 Watt ) [3]
R
∴ cos ϕ =
Z
Hence, Power factor in ac circuit can also be de ned as the ratio of
resistance (R) to the impedance (Z) of the circuit.
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• Wattless current: • 2080 GIE Set A
If the average power consumed in an ac circuit is zero, the i. What is electrical resonance of series LCR
current in the circuit is called wattless current. circuit? [1]
As we have,
ii. Calculate resonant frequency of series LCR
average power consumed = Irms × Vrms × cos ϕ circuit. [2]
For purely inductive or capacitive circuit, the phase angle iii. What is meant by Wattless current?
between current and voltage is 90°, cos 90∘ = 0

average power consumed =0

Therefore, in purely inductive or capacitive circuit even
though there is current in the circuit, no any energy is
converted into heat or work, such current is called
wattless current.
• Wattful current: • Choke coil:
Wattful current (or active component) is the It is a device used in ac circuit to control
component of alternating current that the current without signi cant loss of
remains in phase with the voltage. It electrical energy in the form of heat.
contributes to true power consumption in
an AC circuit. It is directly responsible for It consists a coil of high inductance and
doing work in resistors. It is calculated by negligible resistance. So, it o ers a
Irms cos ϕ, where ϕ is the phase angle reactance XL in an circuit.
between current and voltage.
It controls ac with zero power
consumption. Thus, choke coil is
preferred to resistance in ac circuit to
control the current.

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• Advantages of ac over dc: • Disadvantages of ac over dc:
a. AC generation is cheaper and easier.
a. AC is measured in terms of rms value. Its peak
b. AC can be step-up or step-down according value is greater than rms value. Therefore, ac
to our requirement. gives a more severe shock than dc of the same
magnitude.
c. AC is easily convertible into DC.
b. AC is useless for electrolysis.
d. AC current can be controlled using choke coil
without signi cant loss of energy. c. AC ows only on the outer surface of a
conductor called skin e ect, so, a bundle of thin
wires is necessary for its transmission.
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