CHAPTER TWO

BASICS OF PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

Moyka Mosa
Outline

Introduction
C++ Environment Setup
C++ Program Structure
Parts of a program: Keywords, Identifiers, Inputs,
Outputs, Comments,
Data Types
Variables
Constants
2
Outline

 Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Increment and Decrement Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Conditional Operator
 Precedence of Operators

3
Introduction
C++ is one of the most popular and widely used
programming languages in the world.
It is a cross-platform language that can be used to
create high-performance applications.
It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T
Bell Laboratories in the 1979.
C++ is an extension of the C Programming
language.

4
Cont’d…
C++ builds upon the C language by introducing
object-oriented programming features.
In addition, C++ includes features like
namespaces, templates, and a comprehensive
standard library.
C++ is a case sensitive language.
It is used in the development of a wide range of
applications, including games, operating systems,
embedded systems, scientific computing, and
many others. 5
C++ Environment Setup
Environment Setup refers to installing and
configuring the software needed to code in C++.
To begin programming in C++, two essential tools
are required:
Text editor
Compiler
A text editor is a software used for writing code
in c++.
Example: Notepad, Notepad++, vim, etc.
6
Cont’d…
A C++ compiler is a tool that converts your source
code into machine-executable code.
One of the most commonly used and freely
available compilers is the GNU C/C++ compiler.
But an Integrated Development Environment is
used to make C++ programming easier and more
efficient.
An IDE is a software suite that combines multiple
development tools required to write and test
software. 7
Cont’d…
It presents them within a single, human-readable
graphical user interface (GUI).
It provides a single platform that includes:
A code editor
A compiler or interpreter
Debugging tools
Features like syntax highlighting, auto-
completion, and error detection
8
Cont’d…
Popular IDE's include Code::Blocks, Eclipse, and
Visual Studio, Dev-C++, and others.
Some of the most popular C++ compilers
include Microsoft Visual C++ (part of Visual Studio),
the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) with g++, and
Clang/LLVM.

9
C++ Program Structure
The basic structure of a C++ program consists of
the following parts:
Header File Inclusion
Namespace Declaration
main() Function
Program Logic
Return Statement

10
Cont’d…
Header File Inclusion
Includes built-in libraries.
Example: <iostream> is used for input/output
(cin, cout).
You can include multiple headers: #include
<cmath>, #include <string> and others.

11
Cont’d…
Namespace Declaration (using namespace
std;)
std stands for standard.
Belongs to the Standard Library.
It contains all the features of the C++ Standard
Library
Avoids the need to write std::cout, std::cin, etc.

12
Cont’d…
main() Function
The main() function is the entry point of every C+
+ program.
It’s where the program starts execution.
Returns an integer to the operating system.
Program logic: Written inside main().
E.g.: cout << “Welcome to C++!”;
return 0;: Ends the program successfully.
13
Cont’d…

Example: A simple C++ program

14
C++ Tokens
A token is the smallest unit in a C++ program that
the compiler recognizes.
Tokens are the building blocks of C++ code.
Common types of tokens in C++ include:
Keywords, Identifiers, Constants, Operators,
Special Symbols.
A program is constructed using a combination of
these tokens.

15
Keywords (Reserved words)
Keywords are predefined words that have special
meanings to the compiler.
It is always written in lower cases.
Keywords are reserved terms in the C++
programming language that have preset
meanings.
For example, int money;
int is a keyword that indicates money is a variable
of type integer.
16
Cont’d…

17
C++ Identifier
C++ identifiers are unique names assigned to
identify variables, functions, classes, arrays, and
other user-defined items in a program.
Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or
more descriptive names (age, sum, totalVolume).
It is recommended to use descriptive names in
order to create understandable and maintainable
code.
Example: int minutesPerHour = 60; //Good
int m = 60; //Not easy to understand
18
Cont’d…

Rules for Naming Identifiers

It must begin with a letter uppercase
or lowercase or an underscore (_) but cannot
start with a digit.
After the first character, use letters, digits digits (0-
9), or underscores.
It cannot contain whitespace or special characters
such as !, #, %, etc.
Identifiers are case-sensitive (Myvar ≠ myvar). 19
Cont’d…

Rules for Naming Identifiers…

It has no limit on name length (int x or int
thisIsAVeryLongVariableNameThatStillWorksInCpp
).
It cannot be a keyword (reserved word), such as
int, bool, return, while, etc.
Use meaningful names that reflect the purpose of
the identifier (e.g, totalCount, calculateArea).
Use camelCase or snake_case for readability. 20
Cont’d…
CamelCase: Words are joined together without
spaces.
Each new word starts with a capital letter (except
the first one).
Example: calculateAverageScore, firstName
Snake_case: Words are written in lowercase and
separated by underscores.
Example: calculate_average_score, first_name
21
Variable
In C++, variable is a name given to a memory
location.
A variable is a named storage location in
memory.
It is the basic unit of storage in a program.
Creating and naming a variable is called variable
definition or declaration.
The syntax of variable definition is: type name;
Where, type is the type of data that a variable can
22
Cont’d…
name is the name assigned to the variable.
Example: int num;
int is the keyword used to tell the compiler that
the variable with name num will store integer
values.
Multiple variables of the same type can be defined
as: type name1, name2, name3 ...;
To declare multiple variables of the same type,
separate them with commas.
23
Cont’d…
A variable must be declared before use in C++.
A variable that is just defined or declared might
not contain a valid value.
So, we need to initialize it with a valid initial value.
Variable initialization assigns an initial value to a
variable at the time of declaration.
It is performed using an assignment operator(=).
type name;
name = value; 24
Cont’d…
Example: int num;
num=100;
Variable definition and initialization can also be
done in a single step as shown:
type name = value;
where the value should be of the same type as
variable.
Example: int num=100;
25
Cont’d…
In C++, a variable is like a container that holds
data.
As the program runs, the value stored in that
variable can be updated or changed.
Example:
int number = 5; // Initially, number is 5
number = 10; // Now, number is changed to
10

26
Literals
Literals are the actual values that are directly
written in the code to represent specific data.
They are data used for representing fixed values.
In C++, literals are often used to assign initial
values to variables.
Example: int x = 10; //10 is literal
A literal can be used as an operand in an
expression.
Example: int result = 5 + 3; // 3 and 5 are literals
27
Cont’d…
Literals can also be passed as arguments to
functions.
Example: printValue(25); // The literal 25 is
passed as an argument to the function
C++ supports several types of literals based on the
kind of data they represent.
Types of Literals in C++:
1. Integer Literals: represent whole numbers and
can be expressed in decimal, octal, hexadecimal, or
binary.
28
Cont’d…
Example: 10, 012, 0xA, 0b1010
2. Floating-Point Literals: represent numbers with
decimal points or in exponential (scientific)
notation.
Example: 3.14, 6.022e23
3. Character Literals: represent individual
characters and are enclosed in single quotes.
Certain special characters can be represented
using escape sequences.
Examples: 'A', '\n', '\t' 29
Cont’d…
4. String Literals: represent sequence of characters
enclosed in double quotes.
Examples: "Hello, World!", "This is a string".
5. Boolean Literals: Used to represent truth values:
true and false.
Examples: True, False.

30
C++ Comments
Comments are non-executable lines in the code.
They serve as notes or explanations to make the
code more readable for developers.
They are used to explain the code, improve
readability, and help with debugging.
The compiler ignores comments.
C++ supports two types of comments:
1. Single-line comments
2. Multi-line comments 31
Cont’d…
1. Single-line comments
In C++, a single line comment starts with a double
forward slash (//) symbol.
It applies comments to a single line only.
Anything written after // until the end of the first
line is a single-line comment.
The compiler ignores any text after // and it will
not be executed.
Example: int a; // declaring a variable 32
Cont’d…
2. Multi-line comments
Start with /* and end with */.
Any text in between these symbols is treated as a
comment only.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by the
compiler.
A multi-line comment can occupy many lines of
code
33
Cont’d…
Example:
/* The code below will print the words Hello
World!
to the screen, and it is amazing */
cout << "Hello World!";
Single-line comments are generally used for short
lines of comments.
Multi-line comments are generally used for longer
lines of comments. 34
C++ Data Types
Data types define the type of data a variable can
hold.
C++ is a strongly typed language — every
variable must have a type.
In C++, data types are generally categorized into
the following main categories:
1. Primitive (Fundamental) Data Types
2. Derived Data Types
3. User-Defined Data Types
35
Cont’d…
.
C++ Data Types

Primitive/ Derived Data User Defined

Built-in Type Data Type

36
Cont’d…
1. Primitive (Fundamental) Data Types
Are the most basic types of data built into a
programming language.
They are directly supported by the compiler and
represent basic values.
They serve as the foundation for all other data
types.
Common primitive data types are: integer types,
floating-point types, character types, and 37
Cont’d…
A. Integer Data Type (int)
The keyword used to define integers is int.
Used to store whole numbers, which can be
positive, negative, or zero. For example: -3, 0,
100, 2456.
It is commonly used for counting, indexing, or any
situation where whole numbers are required.
It does not store decimal or fractional values.
Its size is usually 4 bytes (32 bits).
It can store values from -2,147,483,648 to 38
Cont’d…
B. Floating Point Data Type (float)
The keyword used to define floating-point
numbers is float.
Used to store floating-point numbers (decimals
and exponentials).
It is typically used when storing values that
require fractions, such as measurements or
scientific data.
Its size is 4 bytes (32 bits).
39
Cont’d…
C. Double Data Type (double)
The keyword used to define double-precision
floating-point numbers is double.
It is used to store decimal numbers with higher
precision.
The size of double is 8 bytes (64 bits).
It has a precision of 15 to 17 decimal digits.
Hence, double has two times the precision
of float. 40
Cont’d…
D. Character Data Type (char)
The keyword used to define a character is char.
It is used to store a single character.
Its size is 1 byte.
It stores characters enclosed in single quotes (‘ ‘).
char can also be signed or unsigned, affecting
the range of values:
Signed: -128 to 127
Unsigned: 0 to 255 41
Cont’d…
D. Boolean Data Type (bool)
The keyword used to define a boolean variable
is bool.
The bool data type has one of two possible
values: true or false.
Its size is 1 byte.

42
Cont’d…
Type modifiers
Type modifiers are the keywords used to change
or give extra meaning to already existing data
types.
It is added to primitive data types as a prefix to
modify their size or range of data they can store.
C++ allows the char, int, and double data types to
have modifiers preceding them.
There are four type modifiers in C++: signed,
43
Cont’d…
I. signed Modifier
Signed variables can hold both positive and
negative integers including zero.
It can be used only with int and char data types.
Example: signed int x; signed char my_char = 'A’;
The range of signed char is usually -128 to 127 (on
systems where a byte is 8 bits).
By default, integers are signed.
Hence instead of signed int, we can directly 44
Cont’d…
II. unsigned Modifier
The unsigned variables can hold only non-
negative integer values.
It makes the data type non-negative, meaning it
can only store zero or positive values.
It can only be used with int and char data types.
unsigned int can store a range of values
from 0 to 4,294,967,295.
45
Cont’d…
unsigned char can store values from 0 to 255
(instead of -128 to 127 for a signed char).
In C++, the unsigned modifier can be combined
with other type modifiers to alter the size and
range of integer types.
These type modifiers include short, long, and long
long.

46
Cont’d…
III. short Modifier
short is a modifier used with the integer (int)
type.
It reduces the storage size compared to a normal
int.
Mainly used when memory saving is important
and large numbers are not needed.
It stores whole numbers but occupies 2 bytes (16
bits). 47
Cont’d…
IV. long Modifier
long is a type modifier used to increase the
storage size of an integer type.
It allows storing larger whole numbers than the
regular int.
The long int is typically 4 bytes (32 bits) on most
systems.
However, it can be 8 bytes (64 bits) on some
systems, especially 64-bit ones.
It can be used with integer and double data types.48
Cont’d…
long is equivalent to long int.
It can also be used twice on integers. long long
int.
long long guarantees 8 bytes (64 bits) and is used
for larger integer values.
The long double type is used for floating-point
numbers and provides extended precision.
long double usually occupies 16 bytes.
The modifiers signed and unsigned can also be
used as prefix to long or short modifiers. 49
Cont’d…
Type Typical size Range
int 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to
+2,147,483,647
char 1 byte -128 to 127
float 4 bytes 1.17549e-38 to 3.40282e+38
double 8 bytes ±1.7E-308 to ±1.7E+308.
signed int 4 bytes -2,147,483,648 to
+2,147,483,647
short int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 4bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295 50
Cont’d…
signed short int 2 bytes -32,768 to 32,767
long int 4bytes -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647
signed long int 4bytes same as long int
unsigned long int 4byte 0 to 4,294,967,295
long long int 8 bytes -(2^63) to (2^63)-1
unsigned long 8 bytes 0 to
long int 18,446,744,073,709,551,61
5 51
Cont’d…
A C++ program that checks and displays the size
of fundamental data types:

52
Cont’d…
2. Derived Data Types
Derived data types are data types that are created
by combining primitive or built-in data types.
For example: arrays, pointers, function, and
references.
3. User Defined Data Types
Types created by programmers to model specific
problems.
C++ supports 5 user-defined data types: Class,
Structure, Union, Enumeration and Typedef. 53
Cont’d…
Types affect several key aspects of program
behavior and system resources.
I. Memory Usage: Different data types require
different amounts of memory. For instance, int: 4
bytes, char: 1 byte.
II. Performance: Operations on certain data types
are faster. For example, Integer arithmetic is faster
than floating-point.
III. Valid Operations: Each data type supports
specific operations. For example, booleans can’t 54
Constants
Constants are variables whose values cannot be
changed once initialized.
There are two methods to define constants in C+
+:
1. #define preprocessor directive method
2. 'const' keyword method
1. 'const' Keyword Method:
It ensures that the value remains immutable
throughout the program's execution.
Example: const int MAX_VALUE = 100;
55
Cont’d…
2. #define Preprocessor Directive Method
It is used to define constants before the
compilation of the code starts.
It tells the preprocessor to replace a name with a
value or text before compilation.
It acts as a simple text substitution tool.
Syntax: #define CONSTANT_NAME constant_value
Example: #define PI 3.14159
56
Cont’d…
Example: Same output with different methods

57
C++ Operators
Symbols that take one or more arguments
(operands) and operate on them to produce a
result.
Operators are symbols that perform operations
on variables and values.
Types of operators in C++ are:
Arithmetic Operators
Relational (Comparison) Operators
Logical Operators
Assignment Operators
Increment/Decrement Operators 58
Arithmetic Operators
Used to perform arithmetic operations on the
operands. Example: int a=5, b=2;
Operato Name Description Operation Result
r s
+ Addition Adds two values a+b 7
- Subtraction Subtracts second from first a - b 3
Multiplicatio
* Multiplies two numbers a*b 10
n
/ Division Divides first by second a/b 2
% Modulus Returns remainder a%b 1
59
Cont’d…
All arithmetic operators except modulo (%) allow
mixed integer/real operands.
For example: 9/2 // gives 4, not 4.5
-9/2 // gives -4, not -4.5
4/6 // evaluates to 0
10.5%3 // Compiler error
5+3.14 // converted to double +
double
If both operands are integers, then the result will
be an integer.
If one or both operands are real then the result 60
Relational Operators
Relational operators compare two values or
expressions and return a true or false result.
All C++ relational operators are binary operators.
They require two operands to perform a
comparison.
Relational operators enable:
Decision-making (through conditional statements
like if-else)
Loop control (determining when loops should
continue or terminate)
Conditional checks (evaluating expressions to guide61
Cont’d…
Example: int a=5, b=2;
Operator Description Example Result
== Equal to a == b false
!= Not equal to a != b true
> Greater than a>b true
< Less than a<b false
>= Greater than or a >= b true
equal
<= Less than or equal a <= b false 62
Logical Operators
Logical operators combine multiple conditions
and return a true or false result.
They are used in decision-making and looping
statements to evaluate multiple conditions.
These operators are essential for controlling the
flow of a program based on conditions.
It returns either 0 or 1 depending upon whether
the expression results in true or false.
If the result is true, it returns 1 else returns 0.
There are three primary logical operators in C++.
63
Cont’d…
Operato Name Description Example Result
r
&& Logical AND Returns true if (a > 4 && b > 1) true
both statements
are true
|| Logical OR Returns true if (a>2||b<2) True
one of the
statements is
true
! Logical NOT Reverse the !(a > b) false
64
Cont’d…
Additionally, C++ provides alternative keywords:
No Operator Keyword
1. && and
2. || or
3. ! not
The logical NOT operator ( ! ) is a unary operator
that is used to negate the value of a condition.
In C++, the logical AND (&&) and logical OR (||)
operators are binary operators. 65
Assignment Operators
Are used to assign values to variables.
Operator Meaning Example Equivalen
t
= Assign value a = 10
+= Add and assign a+= 5 a=a+5
-= Subtract and assign a-= 3 a=a-3
*= Multiply and assign a*= 2 a= a * 2
/= Divide and assign a/= 2 a= a / 2
%= Modulus and assign a%= 2 a= a % 266
Increment/Decrement Operators
The increment operator (++) adds 1 to its
operand.
The decrement operator (--) subtracts 1 from its
operand.
x = x+1; is the same as x++;
x = x-1; is the same as x--;
Both the increment and decrement operators can
either precede (prefix) or follow (postfix) the
operand.
67
Cont’d…
The postfix operator says that first use the value
and then increment it.
This means the value is first used up for the
operation then the value is updated by 1.
Post-increment (x++) means "use then
increment".
Example: int x = 5;
int temp = x++;
x becomes 6 (after increment)
temp gets 5 (original value before increment)
68
Cont’d…
The prefix operator says that first increment the
value then use it.
This means the value is increased by 1 for the
operation then the value is used by the variable.
Example: int x = 5;
int temp = ++x;
x becomes 6 (after increment)
temp gets 6 (the new value after increment)
The -- operator works in a similar way to the +
+ operator except -- decreases the value by 1.
69
Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators perform operations on
the binary representations of integers.
These operations include testing, setting, or
shifting the actual bits.
They are used for low-level manipulation of data,
memory optimization, and certain algorithms.

70
Cont’d…
Operator Name Description Example (a = 5, b = 3)

a & b → 1 (0101 & 0011 =

& AND Sets bit to 1 if both bits are 1
0001)

a | b → 7 (0101 | 0011 =
| OR Sets bit to 1 if at least one bit is 1
0111)

a ^ b → 6 (0101 ^ 0011 =
^ XOR Sets bit to 1 if bits are different
0110)

NOT (Compl ~a → -6 (in 4-bit: ~0101 =

~ Flips all bits (unary operator)
ement) 1010)

a << 1 → 10 (0101 << 1 =

<< Left Shift Shifts bits left, filling with 0
1010)

Shifts bits right (signed/unsigned behavior a >> 1 → 2 (0101 >> 1 =

>> Right Shift
varies) 0010) 71
Conditional Operator (?:)
It is also called the ternary operator because it
works with three operands.
It takes 3 operands (condition, expression1 and
expression2).
Syntax: condition ? expression1 : expression2;
Here, condition is evaluated and
if condition is true, expression1 is executed.
if condition is false, expression2 is executed.
It is a short and concise way to write an if-else
statement.
72
Cont’d…
Example: C++ Ternary Operator
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
double marks;
cout<<"Enter Grade from (0=100)";
cin>>marks;
string result = (marks>=50)? "PASS":"FAIL";
cout << "You " << result << " the exam.";
return 0;
} 73
Cont’d…
Reading Assignment: Operator precedence in C+
+

74