COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Chapter 1: Introduction to Computer Graphics

1.1 Fundamentals of Computer Graphics

What is Computer Graphics?

Computer graphics is a branch of computer science concerned with generating, representing, and
manipulating visual content using computers. At its most fundamental level, it is the art and science
of creating pictures — whether static or animated — using programming and computational
algorithms.

The term covers a broad range of activity: from drawing a simple triangle on a screen to producing
a fully rendered, photorealistic 3D environment for a blockbuster film. The end product is always a
visual image, which might be a business chart, an architectural design, a medical scan, or an
animated character.

More precisely, computer graphics encompasses three interconnected ideas:

• Computer representation and manipulation of image data — how images are stored,
encoded, and modified internally.
• Technologies for creating and manipulating images — hardware and software tools that
generate visuals.
• A sub-field of computer science — the study of algorithms and methods for digitally
incorporating and rendering visual content.

Core Intuition
Think of a computer as a digital artist. The 'canvas' is your screen, made up of thousands of tiny
dots called pixels. Computer graphics is the entire set of rules, tools, and techniques that tell the
computer which colour each dot should be — and when to change it. Everything from your
phone's wallpaper to a Hollywood CGI sequence follows this fundamental principle.

Why Computer Graphics? — Motivation

Before computers, visual information was communicated through hand-drawn charts, physical
models, and printed photographs. These were slow to create, expensive to reproduce, and difficult
to update. Computer graphics changed all of this.
Consider a practical example: a shoe company wants to display five years of sales data.
Presenting thousands of raw numbers in a table is exhausting and hard to interpret. A bar chart or
line graph, generated instantly by a computer, communicates the same information in seconds.
This is the core motivation for computer graphics — visuals communicate complex data more
efficiently than text or numbers alone.

Why Computer Graphics Matters

Speed — Computers generate and update images far faster than any manual method.
Economy — Digital images are cheaper to produce and reproduce than physical artwork.
Accuracy — Mathematical precision ensures correct proportions, perspectives, and
measurements.
Interactivity — Users can manipulate and explore visual data in real time.
Realism — Modern techniques can create images indistinguishable from photographs.
Data comprehension — Visual representations help humans detect patterns and trends in large
datasets.

Representation of Computer Graphics

All computer graphics are ultimately made up of pixels — the smallest addressable unit on a
display screen. Each pixel stores a colour value, typically encoded using combinations of Red,
Green, and Blue (RGB) light.

The Pixel
A pixel (short for picture element) is a single dot on the screen. In a 1024 x 1024 display, there are
over one million pixels. Each pixel can represent a specific colour depending on how many bits are
used to store it:
• 1-bit per pixel: black or white (monochrome) — 2 possible states.
• 8-bit per pixel: 256 possible colours.
• 24-bit per pixel (true colour): over 16 million colours (8 bits each for R, G, and B).

Coordinate System
Pixels are addressed using a Cartesian-style coordinate system. The origin (0, 0) is typically
placed at the lower-left corner of the screen. The x-axis increases to the right and the y-axis
increases upward. Every point on the screen has an (x, y) address.

Types of Graphics Representation

Type How it Works Best Used For
 Raster (Bitmap) Image stored as a grid of pixels, Photographs, realistic images,
each with a colour value video
Vector Image described as Logos, diagrams, scalable
mathematical shapes (lines, artwork
curves, polygons)
3D Models Objects defined by vertices and Games, films, simulations, CAD
surfaces in 3D space, rendered
to 2D

Steps in Computer Graphics

Producing a computer graphics image involves a pipeline of well-defined computational steps.
Understanding these steps is essential because each one gives rise to a major area of study within
the field.

1. Modelling — Define the geometry of objects using coordinates, polygons, or mathematical

curves. This step answers: what shape does the object have?
2. Transformation — Position, orient, and scale objects in space using mathematical matrices.
Transformations include translation (moving), rotation (turning), and scaling (resizing).
3. Projection — Convert the 3D scene into a 2D image as seen from a virtual camera. This
step handles perspective: distant objects appear smaller.
4. Rasterisation — Determine which pixels on the screen correspond to which parts of the 2D
image. This converts continuous geometry to discrete pixel positions.
5. Shading and Rendering — Apply colour, texture, lighting, and shadow to make the image
look realistic. This is the most computationally intensive step.
6. Display — Send the final pixel data to the frame buffer and output it to the screen.

Key Concept: Transformation

When you want to place a triangle on the screen, you use a transformation matrix to map from
'object space' (where the triangle is defined) to 'image space' (where it appears on screen). The
same matrix can also control the triangle's position, rotation, and size. This matrix-based
approach is the mathematical backbone of all computer graphics.

1.2 History and Evolution of Computer Graphics

Computer graphics did not emerge overnight. It evolved over several decades, driven by advances
in hardware, software, and human creativity. The field was born out of practical necessity —
scientists and engineers needed better ways to visualise complex data.

Early Foundations (1940s–1950s)

1940–1941: The first directly digital computer-generated graphics appear, including a radiosity
image produced at MIT.
1946: Images are presented at the national technical conference of the Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America.
1950: John Whitney Sr. invents computer-assisted mechanisms to create graphic artwork and
short films.
1951: Vectorscope computer graphics displayed on a computer at MIT. General Motors begins
study of computer-aided graphical design.
1955: The first light pen used as an input device at MIT by Bert Sutherland (SAGE system).
1957: The IBM 740 creates sequences of points on a CRT to represent lines and shapes.
1959: Don Hart and Ed Jacks invent the first computer-aided drawing system at General
Motors/IBM.

Defining Moments (1960s–1970s)

1960: William Fetter coins the term 'Computer Graphics' for cockpit design work at Boeing.
1962: Ivan Sutherland creates Sketchpad at MIT — the first interactive graphics program, allowing
users to draw directly on a display.
1965: IBM 2250 — the first commercially available graphics computer.
1966: Ralph Baer develops the first consumer computer graphics game, 'Odyssey.'
1972: Nolan Bushnell releases PONG, the first commercially successful arcade game.
1973: Edwin Catmull develops the Z-buffer algorithm and texture mapping — two techniques still
used today in every graphics card.
1974: Phong Bui-Toung develops Phong shading, a key lighting model for 3D surfaces.
1975: Edwin Catmull introduces the Tween animation system.
1978: Jim Blinn introduces bump mapping, a technique for simulating surface texture without
adding geometry.
1979: Ray tracing developed at Bell Laboratory and Cornell University.

Commercialisation and Modernisation (1980s–Present)

1982: AutoCAD 1.0 launches — the first widely used CAD software. Disney makes the first broad
use of 3D graphics in a feature film.
1987: Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard introduced, enabling richer colour displays on
personal computers.
1995: First fully CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery) feature film released.
2000: First web-based CAD system (SketchUp) released.
2013: Realistic 3D graphics become achievable on home computers.
2018: Real-time photorealistic graphics possible on mobile phones; fully CGI-based human faces
generated in real time.
 Key Inventors to Remember
Ivan Sutherland (1962) — Created Sketchpad; considered the father of interactive computer
graphics.
William Fetter (1960) — Coined the term 'Computer Graphics.'
Edwin Catmull (1973) — Developed Z-buffer, texture mapping, and Tween animation; co-
founded Pixar.
Phong Bui-Toung (1974) — Developed Phong shading model.
Verne Hudson & William Fetter (Boeing) — Often credited as inventors of computer graphics as
a discipline.

3D Graphics Techniques and Terminology

As computer graphics matured, a vocabulary of techniques emerged. Here are the core terms you
need to understand:

Rendering: The process of converting a 3D scene description into a 2D image. Rendering handles
lighting, shadows, reflections, and texture.
Ray Tracing: A rendering technique that simulates the physical behaviour of light by tracing rays
from the camera into the scene. Produces highly realistic images. Computationally expensive.
Texture Mapping: Wrapping a 2D image (texture) onto a 3D surface to add detail without
increasing geometric complexity.
Bump Mapping: Simulating surface irregularities (like bumps or scratches) using a texture map
that alters the surface normal, creating the illusion of detail.
Z-Buffer (Depth Buffer): A memory area that stores the depth of each rendered pixel. Used to
determine which surfaces are visible when objects overlap.
Shading: Calculating the colour of each pixel or polygon based on light sources, surface
properties, and viewing angle.
Phong Shading: A popular shading model that interpolates surface normals across a polygon for
smooth, realistic-looking highlights.
Wireframe: A 3D model displayed as only its edges and vertices, without filled surfaces. Useful for
seeing the underlying geometry.
CGI: Computer-Generated Imagery — photorealistic or stylised images/animations created entirely
by computer.

1.3 Uses and Applications of Computer Graphics

Computer graphics has become indispensable across virtually every field of human activity. Its
applications range from entertainment and education to engineering and medicine.
Application Areas
1. Education and Training
Computer-generated models of physical, biological, economic, and social systems serve as
powerful educational tools. Students can visualise concepts — such as the structure of a molecule
or the orbit of planets — that would be impossible to observe directly.
A key example is the Flight Simulator — pilots spend large portions of their training not in real
aircraft but at the controls of a computer-simulated cockpit. This approach offers fuel savings,
eliminates safety risks, and allows trainees to practise at hundreds of different airports worldwide.

2. Presentation Graphics
Charts, graphs, and infographics are used to summarise and communicate complex data clearly.
Types include bar charts, pie charts, line graphs, and scatter plots. They are essential in:
• Financial and statistical reports
• Scientific and mathematical publications
• Business and managerial presentations
• Economic data analysis

3. Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Architects, engineers, and product designers use CAD software to create precise 2D drawings and
3D models of structures and components. Objects can be viewed in wireframe form, zoomed,
rotated, and modified interactively. Animations of designs help test performance before physical
prototypes are built.

4. Entertainment
Computer graphics drives modern entertainment. Motion pictures use CGI to create creatures,
environments, and visual effects that would be impossible or unsafe to film. Music videos,
television shows, and video games all rely on real-time and pre-rendered computer graphics. Films
require 24 frames per second; video monitors use 30 fps.

5. Visualisation
Scientists, engineers, medical professionals, and business analysts use visualisation to interpret
large, complex datasets. Converting data into visual form — colour-coded maps, 3D graphs, flow
simulations — makes patterns and anomalies immediately apparent that would be invisible in raw
numbers.

6. Computer Art
Artists use graphics software to create electronic paintings that simulate brush strokes, widths,
colours, and textures. Photorealistic techniques and morphing animations are widely used in
commercial art, advertising, and broadcast television.

7. Medical Imaging
Doctors use computer graphics to visualise internal body structures. Techniques include MRI, CT
scan rendering, and molecular modelling. Molecular biologists can display 3D models of molecules
and interact with them to study structure and behaviour.

8. Mapping and Geographic Information

Town planners and transportation engineers use computer-generated maps to display and analyse
spatial data. These maps integrate large datasets and allow interactive exploration of geographic
information.

9. Educational Software and Printing

Computer graphics supports the development of interactive educational software, computer-aided
instruction systems, and advanced printing and textile design technologies.

Common Computer Graphics Software Packages

LOGO — educational drawing language for beginners
CorelDRAW — professional vector illustration
AutoCAD — industry-standard CAD for engineering and architecture
3D Studio (3ds Max) — 3D modelling and animation
GKS (Graphics Kernel System) — standardised graphics API
PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) — 3D graphics standard
CGI / CGM (Computer Graphics Interface / Metafile) — graphics interchange formats

1.4 Types of Computer Graphics

Computer graphics is broadly divided into two categories based on whether or not the user can
interact with the image in real time.

Interactive Computer Graphics

In interactive computer graphics, there is two-way communication between the user and the
computer. The user can observe an image, provide input through an input device, and see the
image change immediately in response. The image is entirely under the user's control.
Classic example: a video game. When a player presses a button, the game character moves. The
image responds to the command in real time.

Another example: a CAD application where an engineer drags a component and watches the 3D
model update instantly.

Advantages of Interactive Computer Graphics

• Higher quality output — the user can refine and correct in real time.
• More precise results — continuous feedback allows accurate adjustments.
• Greater productivity — faster iteration compared to non-interactive methods.
• Lower analysis and design cost — problems are caught early.
• Enhanced data comprehension — users can explore data from multiple angles and
perspectives.

Working of Interactive Computer Graphics

A modern interactive graphics display consists of three essential hardware components working
together:

Component Role
Frame Buffer (Digital Memory) Stores the colour value of every pixel currently being
displayed. Acts as the bridge between the CPU and the
monitor.
Monitor Displays the image by converting digital pixel values into
visible light. Functions like a TV set without the tuning
electronics.
Display Controller (Video Controller) Reads pixel data from the frame buffer and generates the
electrical signals needed to drive the monitor, including
horizontal and vertical scanning signals.

The Frame Buffer in Detail

The frame buffer is a large, contiguous area of computer memory dedicated to holding the image
currently on screen. Every pixel position has at least one corresponding memory location.

• A single bit plane stores 1 bit per pixel — giving a black-and-white (monochrome) image.
• A 1024 x 1024 display at 1 bit per pixel requires 2^20 = 1,048,576 memory bits.
• Colour images require multiple bit planes — typically 24 bits (8 each for Red, Green, Blue)
for true colour.
• The frame buffer is digital; the raster CRT is analog — a Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
bridges them.
How the Video Controller Works
The video controller cycles through every pixel position in the frame buffer at the display's refresh
rate. The process follows these steps:

7. At the start of each refresh cycle, the X register is set to 0 and the Y register to Y-max (top
of screen).
8. The controller reads the colour value stored at that (X, Y) address in the frame buffer.
9. The colour value (a binary number) is split into three components (R, G, B) and sent to
three separate Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs).
10. The DAC outputs control the intensity of three electron beams (in a CRT) aimed at the
corresponding pixel position.
11. The X register increments by 1 to move to the next pixel along the scan line.
12. When X reaches X-max, it resets to 0 and Y decrements by 1 (moving to the next scan line
down).
13. This continues until all scan lines (down to Y = 0) are drawn, completing one frame.

To avoid reading the frame buffer one pixel at a time (which is too slow), multiple adjacent pixel
values are fetched in a single memory access and stored in a register. Pixel values are shifted out
of this register one at a time at the correct rate.

Key Concept: Refresh Rate

Because the phosphor on a CRT screen fades quickly, the image must be redrawn many times
per second. This is called 'refreshing.' If the refresh rate is too low, the image flickers visibly.
Standard refresh rates are 60–80 Hz (frames per second) for raster displays. This is why the
frame buffer is also called a 'refresh buffer.'

Properties of the Video Monitor

Property Definition Why It Matters
Persistence Duration for which phosphor Low persistence requires high
continues to glow after the electron refresh rates; high persistence can
beam moves on. cause blurring of moving images.
Resolution Number of distinct pixels that can be Higher resolution = more detail.
displayed (e.g., 1920 x 1080). Measured in pixels per inch (PPI) or
total pixel count.
Aspect Ratio Ratio of screen width to screen Determines how images are
height (e.g., 16:9 or 4:3). shaped; important for displaying
video and photos without distortion.

Non-Interactive Computer Graphics

In non-interactive computer graphics, there is only one-way communication — from the computer
to the user. The image is produced entirely by a stored program and plays out according to its
instructions. The user has no ability to modify or influence the image during playback.

Classic example: a screensaver. The animation runs automatically based on pre-programmed

logic. The user observes but cannot interact with it.

Other examples include rendered animations (where every frame is pre-computed), automated
charting systems that generate outputs from database queries, and video playback.

Comparison: Interactive vs Non-Interactive

Feature Interactive Non-Interactive
User control Full — user drives the image None — program drives the
image
Communication Two-way (user ↔ computer) One-way (computer → user)
Responsiveness Real-time — changes Pre-determined — follows fixed
immediately instructions
Complexity Higher — requires input handling Lower — just executes a stored
and real-time rendering program
Examples Video games, CAD software, 3D Screensavers, rendered
modelling tools animations, automated charts
Hardware demand Requires fast processors and Can be computed offline and
dedicated GPUs for real-time played back later
performance

Chapter Review

Key Terminology
Pixel: The smallest addressable unit of a display; a single dot that carries a colour value.
Frame Buffer: Memory area that stores the colour value of every pixel currently on screen.
Refresh Rate: The number of times per second the screen is redrawn; measured in Hz or frames
per second.
Bit Plane: One layer of memory in the frame buffer; a single bit plane gives a black-and-white
image.
Resolution: Total number of pixels on a display (width x height); indicates image detail.
Aspect Ratio: Width-to-height ratio of the display (e.g., 16:9).
Persistence: How long phosphor continues to glow after the electron beam moves away.
Display Controller: Hardware that reads the frame buffer and generates scanning signals for the
monitor.
DAC: Digital-to-Analog Converter; converts digital pixel colour values into analog voltage signals
that control the electron beam.
Rendering: Converting a scene description into a viewable image, applying lighting, colour, and
shading.
CGI: Computer-Generated Imagery; visual content produced entirely by computer software.
Interactive CG: Graphics in which the user can influence the image in real time via input devices.
Non-Interactive CG: Graphics produced by a stored program with no user influence during
playback.

Common Exam and Review Points

Frequently Tested Concepts
1. The definition of a pixel and how it relates to the frame buffer.
2. The difference between interactive and non-interactive computer graphics (with examples).
3. The three components of an interactive display: frame buffer, monitor, display controller.
4. Why a single bit plane produces only a black-and-white image.
5. The key milestones in CG history: 1960 (term coined), 1962 (Sketchpad), 1973 (Z-buffer +
texture mapping).
6. The main application areas of computer graphics.
7. What refresh rate is and why it matters for display quality.
8. The steps in the computer graphics pipeline: model → transform → project → rasterise →
shade → display.

Frequently Confused Concepts

Confusion Clarification
Pixel vs Resolution A pixel is a single dot. Resolution is the total COUNT of pixels
(e.g., 1920 x 1080 = over 2 million pixels).
Frame Buffer vs Display Controller The frame buffer STORES pixel data. The display controller
READS and TRANSMITS it to the monitor.
Interactive vs Real-time Interactive means the user can input commands. Real-time
means the response is fast enough to feel immediate. Most
interactive CG aims to be real-time, but not all real-time
graphics are user-interactive.
Refresh Rate vs Resolution Refresh rate = how often the image is redrawn per second
(Hz). Resolution = how many pixels are drawn per frame.
These are independent properties.
 Rendering vs Rasterisation Rasterisation converts geometry to pixels. Rendering is the
broader process that includes lighting, shading, and texture —
rasterisation is one step within rendering.

Summary
Computer graphics is the creation, manipulation, and display of images using computers. It spans
from simple pixel management to complex 3D rendering pipelines. The field began in the 1950s–
60s as a scientific visualisation tool and has grown into a discipline that underpins entertainment,
engineering, medicine, and everyday user interfaces.

At its hardware core is the frame buffer — memory that maps every screen pixel to a stored colour
value — and the display controller, which continuously reads this memory to refresh the monitor.
Interactive graphics adds a two-way communication loop, letting users shape and control what they
see. Non-interactive graphics, by contrast, produces predetermined output according to a stored
program.

Understanding these fundamentals provides the foundation for everything else in computer
graphics: transformations, rendering algorithms, clipping, shading, animation, and beyond.

End of Chapter 1