MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR ROBOTICS • MPR

Mechanical / Robotics Engineering • Comprehensive Study Notes

Covers: Unit 1 • Unit 2 • Unit 3 • Unit 4

MPR
Manufacturing Process
for Robotics
Complete Exam-Ready Notes with Diagrams & Explanations

Unit 1: Metal Cutting Principles and Machine Tools

Unit 2: Metal Cutting Lathes

Unit 3: Drilling, Reaming & Boring Machines

Unit 4: Foundry Technology

Easy-to-understand language | Key formulas | Diagrams | Exam tips

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit Topic CO
1 Metal Cutting Principles and Machine Tools CO 1

1.1 Classification of Machine Tools

1.2 Elements of Metal Cutting

1.3 Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting

1.4 Tool Nomenclature & Tool Materials

1.5 Forces in Metal Cutting — Merchant Circle

1.6 Tool Life, Tool Wear & Cutting Fluids

1.7 Machinability & Economics

2 Metal Cutting Lathes CO 1

2.1 Working Principle & Types

2.2 Parts of Lathe

2.3 Lathe Accessories & Attachments

2.4 Feed, Speed & Change Gears

2.5 Apron Mechanism

2.6 Machining Time Calculation

3 Drilling, Reaming and Boring Machines CO 1,2

3.1 Drilling Machines — Types & Applications

3.2 Twist Drill & Drill Terminology

3.3 Drilling Operations

3.4 Machining Time in Drilling

4 Foundry Technology CO 3

4.1 Patterns — Types & Allowances

4.2 Moulding Materials & Sands

4.3 Core Making

4.4 Moulding Practices

4.5 Casting Processes

4.6 Casting Defects

4.7 Gating System & Riser Design

4.8 Robotics in Casting

 UNIT 1 CO 1

Metal Cutting Principles and Machine Tools

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Introduction: Metal cutting (also called machining) is the process of removing unwanted material from
a workpiece using a cutting tool, to get the desired shape, size, and surface finish. It is one of the most
widely used manufacturing processes. Understanding the principles helps engineers design efficient,
cost-effective machining operations.

1.1 Classification of Machine Tools

A machine tool is a power-driven machine used to cut, shape, or form a workpiece by removing
material. Machine tools can be classified based on different criteria:

Based on Type of Operation:

<b>Category</b> <b>Examples</b> <b>Operation Performed</b>

Turning machines Lathe Cylindrical surfaces, threads, facing

Drilling machines Radial drill, Pillar drill Holes — drilling, reaming, boring

Milling machines Vertical/Horizontal milling Flat, curved, gear surfaces

Grinding machines Cylindrical, Surface grinder Fine finishing, hardened parts

Shaping/Planing Shaper, Planer Flat surfaces by reciprocating motion

Broaching machines Horizontal broach Internal/external profiles

Motions in Machine Tools:

➤ Primary / Cutting Motion: The main motion that produces the chip. E.g., rotation of workpiece in
lathe, rotation of drill.
➤ Feed Motion: Moves the tool along the workpiece to make the cut continuous. E.g., carriage
movement in lathe.
➤ Depth of Cut: Penetration of tool into workpiece. Controls chip thickness.

1.2 Elements of Metal Cutting

When a cutting tool moves against a workpiece, it shears the material along a zone called the shear
plane. The material ahead of the tool deforms plastically and slides off as a chip. Key elements include:

● Chip Formation Zone: Where material deforms and separates from workpiece.
● Primary Deformation Zone: Thin zone along shear plane where most cutting energy is
consumed.
● Secondary Deformation Zone: Between chip and rake face of tool — friction zone.
● Rake Angle (α): Angle of the front face of the tool. Positive rake → easier cutting; Negative rake
→ stronger tool.
● Clearance/Relief Angle: Angle below the cutting edge to prevent rubbing on the machined
surface.
 ● Cutting Speed (V): Speed at which the tool and workpiece move relative to each other (m/min).

Types of Chips:
<b>Chip Type</b> <b>Conditions</b> <b>Appearance</b>

Continuous Chip Ductile material, high speed, large rake Long ribbon — good surface finish

Discontinuous Chip Brittle material (cast iron), low speed Short segments — easy disposal

Cont. with Built-up Edge (BUE) Ductile material, low speed, low rake Material welds to tool — poor finish

Serrated (Saw-tooth) Titanium, hardened steel, high speed Semi-continuous with periodic fracture

1.3 Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal vs Oblique Cutting

90°
i=25°

WORKPIECE WORKPIECE

Chip
ORTHOGONAL Helical Chip OBLIQUE
Cutting edge ⊥ velocity Cutting edge inclined at angle i
2D analysis | i = 0° 3D analysis | i ≠ 0°

<b>Feature</b> <b>Orthogonal Cutting</b> <b>Oblique Cutting</b>

Inclination angle i 0° (edge ⊥ to velocity) i > 0° (edge inclined)

Analysis 2-dimensional 3-dimensional

Chip flow Perpendicular to edge At angle to edge (helical)

Forces 2 forces (Fc, Ft) 3 forces (Fc, Ft, Fa)

Examples Broaching, tube parting Most practical machining

Tool life Less More (distributed heat)

1.4 Classification of Tools and Tool Nomenclature

Tool nomenclature refers to the system of naming and specifying the angles and dimensions of a
cutting tool. The American Standards Association (ASA) system uses 7 angles:

ASA Tool Signature (7-element system):

Back Rake – Side Rake – End Relief – Side Relief – End Cutting Edge – Side Cutting Edge – Nose
Radius
Example: 8° – 14° – 6° – 6° – 6° – 15° – 0.8mm for a HSS turning tool.

<b>Angle</b> <b>Definition</b> <b>Typical Range</b>

 Back Rake Angle Angle of rake face from horizontal (back to front) 0° to 15°

Side Rake Angle Angle of rake face from vertical (side to side) -5° to 15°

End Relief Angle Clearance below end cutting edge 5° to 15°

Side Relief Angle Clearance below side cutting edge 5° to 15°

End Cutting Edge Angle Angle of end edge to perpendicular of shank 5° to 30°

Side Cutting Edge Angle Angle of side edge to shank axis (lead angle) 0° to 45°

Nose Radius Rounding at tool tip (affects finish) 0.4 to 1.6 mm

Tool Materials (from softest/toughest to hardest/most wear-resistant):

<b>Material</b> <b>Key Property</b> <b>Application</b>

High Speed Steel (HSS) Tough, re-sharpenable, up to 600°C General turning, drills, taps

Carbides (WC-Co) Very hard, excellent wear resistance High speed turning, milling

Ceramics (Al2O3) High hot hardness, no BUE Hard cast iron, finish cuts

CBN (Cubic Boron Nitride) 2nd hardest material Hardened steels >50 HRC

Diamond (PCD) Hardest material Non-ferrous, composites

1.5 Forces in Metal Cutting — Merchant Circle Diagram

When cutting, the tool experiences forces due to material shearing and friction. Ernst and Merchant
developed a circle-based force diagram to analyze all cutting forces from just two measurable forces.
This is called the Merchant Circle Diagram.

Merchant Circle Diagram (Force Analysis in Metal Cutting)

Ft (Thrust Force)

Fn (Normal to Shear)
R (Resultant)

Fs (Shear Force)
Shear Plane

Fc (Cutting Force)

φ = Shear angle | α = Rake angle | β = Friction angle | R = Resultant force

Key Forces:
 ■ Fc (Cutting Force / Tangential Force): Acts in the direction of cutting velocity. This is the
LARGEST force — consumes most power.
■ Ft (Thrust Force / Feed Force): Acts perpendicular to cutting velocity. Pushes tool away from
workpiece.
■ Fs (Shear Force): Force along shear plane causing material to shear.
■ Fn (Normal Force on Shear Plane): Force perpendicular to shear plane.
■ R (Resultant Force): Diagonal of the Merchant circle — equal and opposite on tool and
workpiece.

Important Relationships:
Shear Angle (φ): φ = 45° + α/2 − β/2 (Merchant's equation)
Cutting Power: P = Fc × V (Watts)
Where: α = rake angle, β = friction angle = tan■¹(µ), V = cutting speed

1.6 Concept of Tool Life, Tool Wear and Cutting Fluid

Types of Tool Wear
Cutting Edge →
Flank Face

Flank Wear (VB)

Workpiece

Crater Wear

Chip flow

Rake Face

VB = Flank wear land | KT = Crater depth | Wear measured per ISO 3685

Tool Life is defined as the time period for which a tool cuts satisfactorily before it needs
replacement or regrinding. It is measured in minutes of actual cutting time.

Taylor's Tool Life Equation (Most Important Formula):

V × Tn = C
Where: V = Cutting Speed (m/min) | T = Tool Life (min) | n = Taylor's exponent | C = Constant (speed for T=1
min)

Extended: V × Tn × fa × db = C (includes feed f and depth d)

n values:
• HSS tools: n = 0.08 to 0.20
• Carbide tools: n = 0.20 to 0.40
• Ceramic tools: n = 0.40 to 0.60

Types of Tool Wear:

 <b>Wear Type</b> <b>Location</b> <b>Cause</b> <b>Measure</b>

Flank Wear Below cutting edge (flank face) Abrasion by workpiece VB (wear land width)

Crater Wear On rake face Diffusion at high temp KT (crater depth)

Notch Wear At depth-of-cut line Abrasion + oxidation Width of notch

Built-up Edge Tip of tool Work material welding Visual inspection

Cutting Fluids — Purpose and Types:

Cutting fluids (coolants/lubricants) are used to: (1) Cool the cutting zone, (2) Lubricate chip-tool
interface, (3) Flush away chips, (4) Improve surface finish.

<b>Type</b> <b>Composition</b> <b>Best For</b>

Soluble Oils (Emulsions) Mineral oil + water + emulsifier General machining, good cooling

Straight Cutting Oils Mineral/vegetable oil + additives Heavy duty, threading, gear cutting

Chemical Fluids Water-based synthetic solutions Grinding, high temp operations

Gases (Air/CO2) Compressed air, CO2 Dry machining of cast iron

1.7 Machinability and Economics of Metal Cutting

Machinability is the ease with which a material can be machined. A material with good machinability
allows high cutting speeds, longer tool life, good surface finish, and low cutting forces. It is often
expressed as a Machinability Index relative to AISI B1112 steel (= 100%).

● High machinability: Free-cutting steels, aluminium alloys, brass → fast, easy machining
● Low machinability: Titanium, Inconel, hardened steels → slow, difficult, expensive

Economics of Metal Cutting — Optimum Cutting Speed:

Two criteria for optimum speed: (1) Maximum Production Rate — minimize time per piece (2)
Minimum Cost per Piece — minimize total cost
Total Cost per piece = Tool cost + Machining cost + Tool changing cost + Setup cost
The Economic Tool Life balances tool wear costs against production efficiency. Cutting too fast = frequent tool
changes. Too slow = high labor cost.
 UNIT 2 CO 1

Metal Cutting Lathes

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Introduction: The lathe is called the "Mother of All Machine Tools" because it was one of the first
machine tools developed and many other tools are derived from it. It rotates the workpiece against a
cutting tool to produce cylindrical shapes.

2.1 Working Principle and Types of Lathe

Working Principle: In a lathe, the workpiece rotates (primary/cutting motion) while the cutting tool
moves linearly (feed motion). The tool removes material from the rotating workpiece to produce the
desired shape — typically cylindrical.

N = (1000 × V) / (π × D) → RPM formula

Where N = spindle speed (RPM), V = cutting speed (m/min), D = diameter (mm)

Types of Lathes:
<b>Type</b> <b>Key Feature</b> <b>Use</b>

Engine Lathe / Centre Lathe Most common, gear-driven spindle General workshop work

Capstan Lathe Hexagonal turret for tool indexing Mass production, small parts

Turret Lathe Heavy duty turret, larger parts Medium/large batch production

CNC Lathe Computer numerically controlled Precision, automated, complex shapes

Bench Lathe Mounted on workbench, small Watchmaking, instruments

Speed Lathe Very high speed, no carriage Polishing, spinning, woodturning

Special Purpose Axle lathe, wheel lathe, etc. Specific industrial needs

2.2 Parts of Lathe (with Diagram)

 Parts of a Metal Cutting Lathe

Tool Post

Cross Feed ↑

Chuck WORKPIECE Tool Post

HEADSTOCK TAILSTOCK
CARRIAGE
& APRON

← Longitudinal Feed →

HeadstockChuck/Spindle Workpiece Carriage Tailstock

Lathe Bed / Ways

■ Headstock: Fixed to left of bed. Contains spindle, speed-change gears, and drive mechanism.
Spindle holds the chuck or faceplate. Main source of power transmission.
■ Tailstock: Mounted on right end of bed. Can slide along bed. Used to support long workpieces
(with dead/live centre) or hold drilling tools.
■ Bed: The main base/foundation of the lathe. Made of cast iron for vibration damping. Has flat or
V-shaped guideways (ways) on which carriage and tailstock slide.
■ Carriage: Sits on the bed and slides along it. Carries the tool post and cross-slide. Moves for
longitudinal feed (parallel to axis) or cross feed.
■ Cross-slide: Mounted on carriage. Moves perpendicular to spindle axis. Used for facing
operations and adjusting depth of cut.
■ Compound Rest: Mounted on cross-slide. Can be swivelled to any angle for taper turning.
■ Tool Post: Holds the cutting tool rigidly. Types: single-tool, quick-change, four-way turret post.
■ Apron: Front face of carriage. Contains gears, clutches, handwheels for controlling feed. Converts
leadscrew rotation into carriage movement.
■ Leadscrew: Long threaded shaft along front of bed. Engages with split nut in apron for thread
cutting. Driven by gear train from headstock.
■ Feed Rod: Shaft parallel to leadscrew. Drives automatic feed (not thread cutting).

2.3 Lathe Accessories and Attachments

Accessories:
● Three-jaw Chuck (Universal Chuck): Self-centering. All 3 jaws move simultaneously. Used for
round/hexagonal workpieces. Quick but less precise.
● Four-jaw Chuck (Independent Chuck): Each jaw adjusts independently. Can hold irregular,
eccentric, or square work. Very precise.
● Faceplate: Large flat circular disc with T-slots and holes. For irregular workpieces that can't be
chucked.
 ● Dead Centre: Fixed centre in tailstock. Workpiece rotates ON the centre — needs lubrication at
tip.
● Live Centre (Revolving Centre): Rotates with workpiece — preferred for high speeds. No
lubrication needed.
● Lathe Dog & Catch Plate: Drives workpiece between centres for precision turning.
● Steady Rest (Fixed Steady): Supports long slender workpieces from deflection. Fixed to bed.
● Follower Rest: Attached to carriage — follows the tool. Prevents deflection while turning.
● Mandrel: Used to hold hollow workpieces on their bore for external turning.

Attachments:
● Taper Turning Attachment: Slides tool at an angle to produce tapered (conical) surfaces.
● Thread Cutting Attachment: Gear box to synchronise leadscrew with spindle for thread cutting.
● Milling Attachment: Converts lathe to perform milling operations.
● Grinding Attachment: For cylindrical grinding on lathe.

2.4 Speed Ratios, Feed Mechanism and Change Gears

Speed Ratio: The ratio between consecutive spindle speeds in a speed-change gearbox. For geometric
progression of speeds: φ = (Nmax/Nmin)1/(z-1) where z = number of speed steps.

Change Gears: Gears between spindle and leadscrew that can be swapped to change the thread pitch
being cut or feed rate. To cut a thread of pitch p:

Driver Teeth / Driven Teeth = Pitch of thread to be cut / Pitch of leadscrew

Feed Mechanism (Quick Change Gearbox / Norton Gearbox): A sliding gear mechanism that
provides a range of feeds and thread pitches without manually changing gears. Has a cone of gears that
can be engaged by a tumbler gear.

2.5 Apron Mechanism

The apron is located at the front of the carriage. It translates rotary motion of the feedrod/leadscrew into
the linear carriage movement needed for machining.

■ Half-nut (Split-nut) Mechanism: Engages with leadscrew for thread cutting. When lever is pulled,
two half-nut halves clamp around the rotating leadscrew, driving carriage at a precise rate.
■ Worm and Worm Wheel: Feed rod rotates a worm gear in apron, which transmits motion to rack
via pinion for smooth longitudinal or cross feed.
■ Clutch: Allows engagement/disengagement of automatic feed without stopping spindle.
■ Interlock: Safety feature — prevents BOTH half-nut and power feed from engaging
simultaneously (would damage leadscrew).

2.6 Estimating Machining Time and Safety Precautions

Machining Time Calculation:
For Turning: Tm = L / (f × N) minutes
Where: L = length of cut (mm), f = feed (mm/rev), N = RPM = (1000×V)/(π×D)
 Number of Passes: i = (total stock to remove) / (depth of cut per pass)
Total Machining Time = Tm × number of passes

Lathe Safety Precautions:

■ Never measure workpiece while lathe is running
■ Always wear safety glasses — never a loose clothing or gloves while operating
■ Remove chuck key immediately after use — never leave it in chuck
■ Use proper chip guards and never remove chips by hand while running
■ Support long workpieces with tailstock centre or steady rest
■ Ensure workpiece is firmly clamped before starting
■ Do not exceed recommended speeds for chuck size
■ Keep floor area around lathe dry and clean
 UNIT 3 CO 1,2

Drilling, Reaming and Boring Machines

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Introduction: Drilling is the most common hole-making process in manufacturing. A rotating multi-point
cutting tool called a drill is pressed into a workpiece to produce a cylindrical hole. Reaming, boring, and
other allied operations are used to improve or modify these holes.

3.1 Purpose and Classification of Drilling Machines

The drilling machine (or drill press) holds and rotates the drill while feeding it into the workpiece. The
workpiece is clamped; the drill both rotates AND moves downward (feed).

Types of Drilling Machines:

<b>Type</b> <b>Description</b> <b>Application</b>

Portable Drill Hand-held, motor-driven drill On-site drilling, small holes

Sensitive Drill Press Bench/floor mounted, hand feed Small workpieces, precise holes

Pillar / Column Drill Vertical spindle, fixed column, power feed General workshop drilling

Radial Drilling Machine Arm can swing, spindle moves radially Large/heavy workpieces, multiple holes

Gang Drilling Machine Multiple spindles in a row Mass production, multiple operations

Multi-spindle Drill Several spindles simultaneously High volume identical holes

Deep Hole Drilling Machine Special tooling for L/D > 10 Oil holes in crankshafts, gun barrels

CNC Drilling Machine Computer-controlled Precision, complex patterns

3.2 Twist Drill and Drill Terminology

 Twist Drill — Parts & Terminology

Point / Tip

118° Point Angle

Body / Flutes
Flute (helical groove)

Land

Shank

Tang (for removal)

Helix angle typically 20°-30° | Lip clearance: 8°-12°

The twist drill is the most commonly used cutting tool for making holes. It is a multi-point tool with two
cutting edges (lips) and helical flutes that remove chips and bring them out of the hole.

Parts of a Twist Drill:

■ Shank: The part held in the machine. Can be straight (for small drills, held in chuck) or taper
(Morse taper, self-holding for large drills).
■ Body: Main portion with helical flutes. Length determines max hole depth.
■ Point: The cutting end of the drill. Has two cutting lips, chisel edge, and heel.
■ Flute: Helical grooves that: (1) Form cutting edges, (2) Allow chip escape, (3) Allow coolant in.
Helix angle = 20°–30°.
■ Land / Margin: Narrow raised strip along flute edge — maintains hole size, reduces friction.
■ Web: Central core of drill between the flutes. Provides strength. Gets thicker toward shank.
■ Chisel Edge: Cross-cutting edge at drill tip (web edge). Doesn't cut — scrapes. Responsible for
50% of thrust force.
■ Cutting Lips (Lips): Two main cutting edges. Equal length and angle needed for accurate holes.
■ Tang: Flat end on taper shank — fits into slot of spindle socket for positive drive and removal.

Drill Angles:
<b>Angle</b> <b>Standard Value</b><b>Effect</b>

Point Angle (included angle)118° (general purpose) Affects thrust and lip length. 90° for soft materials, 135° for hard.

Helix Angle 20°–30° Controls chip flow. High helix → better chip removal.

Lip Clearance (Relief angle) 8°–12° Prevents heel rubbing below cutting lip.

Chisel Edge Angle 120°–135° Affects chisel edge length — narrow is better.

3.3 Drilling and Allied Operations

Many different operations can be performed on a drilling machine beyond just drilling a hole:

<b>Operation</b> <b>Description</b> <b>Tool Used</b>

Drilling Creating a new hole in solid material Twist drill

Reaming Finishing/enlarging an existing drilled hole to precise size

Reamer
and good
(multi-tooth)
finish

Boring Enlarging and truing a hole using single-point tool Boring bar/tool

Tapping Cutting internal threads inside a hole Tap

Counter-boring Enlarging top portion of hole to flat-bottomed recess (for

Counterbore
bolt head)

Counter-sinking Creating a conical seat at top of hole (for flat-head screw)

Countersink (60°/82°/90°)

Spot-facing Smoothing and squaring a small area around hole on Spot-facing

rough surface
cutter

Centre Drilling Small conical hole at start for accurate positioning Centre drill (combined drill-countersink)

Step Drilling Multiple diameter holes in one pass Step drill

Reaming — Detailed:
Reaming is done after drilling to achieve: (1) Accurate hole size (tolerance H7 or better) (2) Improved
surface finish (Ra 0.8 to 3.2 µm) (3) Correct roundness and straightness

● Reaming allowance: Leave 0.1–0.5mm material after drilling for reamer to remove.
● Cutting speed for reaming: About 2/3 of drilling speed (to avoid chatter and poor finish).
● Types: Hand reamer (straight shank), Machine reamer (taper/straight shank), Adjustable reamer.

3.4 Estimating Machining Time in Drilling

Drilling Time Formula:
Tm = (L + La) / (f × N) minutes
Where: L = depth of hole (mm) La = approach length = (D/2) × cot(θ/2) ≈ 0.3D for 118° drill f = feed per
revolution (mm/rev) N = spindle speed = (1000 × V) / (π × D) RPM

MRR (Material Removal Rate) for Drilling: MRR = (π × D2/4) × f × N mm3/min

 UNIT 4 CO 3

Foundry Technology

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Introduction: Foundry Technology (also called Metal Casting) is the process of melting metal and
pouring it into a mould that contains a cavity of the desired shape. When the metal solidifies, it takes
the shape of the cavity. Casting is one of the oldest and most versatile manufacturing processes —
used to create complex shapes that would be very difficult to machine.

4.1 Patterns — Types, Allowances and Materials

A pattern is a replica or model of the final casting used to create the mould cavity. It is NOT the same
size as the casting — it is LARGER to account for allowances.

Pattern Allowances:
<b>Allowance</b> <b>Reason</b> <b>Value</b>

Shrinkage Allowance Metal shrinks while cooling — pattern madeCast

larger
iron: 10mm/m, Steel: 20mm/m, Aluminium: 16mm/m

Draft (Taper) Allowance Tapered sides help remove pattern from sand
1° towithout
3° on vertical
damagingfaces
mould

Machining Allowance Extra material for machining surfaces to final

1.5dimensions
to 12 mm depending on size

Distortion Allowance Compensates for warping of irregular castings

Varies,
during
determined
cooling by experience

Shake/Rapping Allowance Compensation for mould cavity enlarged when

Slightly
pattern
negative
is rapped
— reduces
out pattern size

Types of Patterns:
<b>Pattern Type</b> <b>Description</b> <b>Used When</b>

Solid/Single Piece One piece pattern, simplest type Simple shapes, small production

Split Pattern Two halves along parting line Patterns that can't be withdrawn as one piece

Match Plate Pattern Two split halves mounted on plate with gate system
Mass production on moulding machines

Cope and Drag Pattern Each half mounted on separate plates High production, mechanized moulding

Gated Pattern Pattern + gate runner integrated Mass production, eliminates separate gating

Sweep Pattern Rotating profile creates mould by sweeping Large axisymmetric shapes — bells, pipes

Skeleton Pattern Framework only — filled with sand Very large castings, one-off production

Loose Piece Pattern Part of pattern removed separately Projections and undercuts in casting

■ Pattern Materials: Wood (most common, cheap), Aluminium alloy (light, corrosion-resistant, CNC
machined), Cast Iron (durable, high production), Plastics/Epoxy Resin (fast manufacturing, CNC),
Wax (investment casting only).

4.2 Moulding Materials and Moulding Sands

Moulding sand is the material used to make the mould cavity. It must be able to withstand high
temperatures and hold its shape. The basic components are: Silica sand (SiO■) + Clay (binder) + Water
(moisture) + Additives.
Properties of Moulding Sand (Must know all!):
<b>Property</b> <b>Definition</b> <b>Why Important</b>

Permeability Ability to allow gases/steam to escape through

Preventssand
gas porosity defects in casting

Strength Ability to maintain shape under weight and

Prevents
metal mould
pressure
from collapsing

Plasticity Ability to take and hold the shape of theReproduces

pattern fine detail of pattern

Collapsibility Breaks down easily after solidification Easy to shake out casting from mould

Refractoriness Resist high temperatures without fusing/melting

Withstand molten metal pouring temperatures

Flowability Ability to flow and fill mould details around

Reproduces
pattern complex shapes

Grain Fineness Size distribution of sand particles (AFS Finer

number)
= better finish; Coarser = better permeability

Moisture Content Percentage of water in sand (2.5-4.5%)Affects strength, permeability, and plasticity

Clay Content % of clay binder (8-12% for green sand)Clay provides binding strength when wet

Sand Tests:
● Permeability Test (AFS Permeability Tester): Air pressure through standard sample. Number =
cm³/min through 1cm² at 1g/cm² pressure.
● Grain Fineness Test (Sieve Analysis): Sand shaken through series of sieves. AFS grain
fineness number = weighted average.
● Moisture Content: Weight before and after drying at 110°C. % moisture = (loss/original)×100.
● Clay Content: Washing test — clay washes out in water + NaOH solution.
● Strength Tests: Compression, shear, and tensile tests on standard rammed specimens.

4.3 Core Making — Core Materials and Core Print

A core is a preformed sand shape placed in the mould before pouring to create hollow sections,
internal holes, or complex internal shapes in the casting that cannot be created by the pattern alone.

■ Core Box: The mould (usually split) used to make the core. Made of wood, metal, or plastic.
■ Core Sand: Usually oil-sand (silica sand + linseed oil) or resin-sand. Must be strong yet
collapsible after casting.
■ Core Print: Extension on the pattern that creates a recess (core seat) in the mould where the core
sits and is supported. The core print itself does NOT become part of the casting.
■ Chaplet: Metal support spacer placed inside the mould to support cores that cannot be
adequately supported by prints alone. Becomes part of the casting.
■ Core Baking: After making, cores are baked in oven (oil-sand: 200°–250°C) to harden the binder.

Requirements of a good core: High strength → no shift during pouring, Good permeability → gas escape,
Good collapsibility → easy shake-out, Smooth surface → good bore finish, Refractoriness → survive metal
temperature.

4.4 Moulding Practices

Green Sand Moulding:
The most widely used casting method. Sand is used moist (green) — not baked or dried. Cheap, fast,
and reusable. Good for grey cast iron, aluminium, brass, and most metals for simple to moderately
complex shapes.
 Steps: 1) Place cope/drag pattern halves on moulding board → 2) Add parting sand → 3) Ram
moulding sand → 4) Add sprue/riser pins → 5) Remove pattern (with draft) → 6) Assemble cope and
drag → 7) Pour metal

Dry Sand Moulding:

Green sand mould is dried/baked in oven (150°–350°C) before pouring. Stronger than green sand
mould. Better for heavy, large castings where steam from moisture could cause defects. Takes more
time and energy.

Loam Sand Moulding:

High clay content sand (~50% clay). Used for very large castings like flywheels, cylinders, bells. Mould
is built up in layers on a base and dried between layers. Pattern is often a template swept around to
form the cavity.

Pit and Floor Moulding:

● Pit Moulding: Drag portion of mould made in a pit dug in the floor. Used for very large castings
that won't fit in a standard flask.
● Floor Moulding: Large moulds assembled on the foundry floor. No flask — mould contained by
boards or walls.

4.5 Casting Processes

Sand Casting Process — Cross Section View

Molten Metal In
FLASK

COPE (Upper Half of Mold)

Sprue Riser
Green
Sand
MOLD CAVITY
(shape of casting) Parting Line
CORE
Runner

Mold
DRAG (Lower Half of Mold) Sand

<b>Process</b> <b>How it Works</b> <b>Advantages</b> <b>Limitations</b>

Sand Casting Molten metal poured into sand [Link],

Mould broken
any after
metal,solidification.
any size,Poor
complex
finish,shapes
low accuracy, slow

Investment Casting (Lost Wax)

Wax pattern coated with ceramic slurry,
Excellent
wax melted
finish,
out,
complex
metal poured
shapes,
Expensive,
in.
high accuracy
small sizes, slow

Permanent Mould Casting Metal poured into reusable metal mould

Good
by gravity.
finish, reusable mould, consistent
High mouldquality
cost, limited to non-ferrous
 Pressure Die Casting Metal injected at high pressure (7-700Very
MPa)high
intoproduction
metal mould.
rate, thinHigh
walls,tooling
excellent
cost,finish
limited alloys, porosity

Centrifugal Casting Metal poured into rotating mould — centrifugal

Dense, pore-free
force presses
castings,
metal
cylindrical
outward.
Mainly for
shapes
cylinders/pipes

Continuous Casting Molten metal poured continuously intoHigh

water-cooled
production,
mould,
consistent
solidified
quality,
Only
ingotsimple
nopulled
waste
cross-sections
out. (ingots, slabs)

4.6 Casting Defects

Casting defects are imperfections in the final cast product. Understanding causes helps engineers
prevent them. Main categories:

<b>Defect</b> <b>Appearance/Location</b>
<b>Cause</b> <b>Remedy</b>

Porosity / Blowholes Holes inside/on surface Trapped gas, moisture in sand Dry mould, increase permeability, vents

Shrinkage Cavity Void in thick sections Insufficient feeding during solidification

Proper riser design and placement

Cold Shut Visible seam/line in castingTwo streams of metal meet but don't
Increase
fuse pouring temperature, better gating

Misrun Incomplete filling of mould Metal solidified before filling cavityIncrease temp, improve gating, reduce viscosity

Hot Tear / Hot Crack Cracks along grain boundaries

Casting restrained during solidification
Better collapsibility, controlled cooling

Sand Inclusion Sand particles trapped in metal

Weak mould, metal eroding mouldHarder mould, better gating, filters

Swell Mould wall pushed outwardLow mould strength, inadequate ramming

Ram harder, stronger binder

Metal Penetration Metal penetrates into sandLow-permeability

grains sand, excess metal
Proper
pressure
grain size, mould coating

Warpage / Distortion Uneven shape after solidification

Uneven cooling of thin/thick sections
Balanced design, controlled cooling

4.7 Gating System Design and Riser Design

Gating System Design
Pouring Cup

Metal Flow ↓

Sprue

Riser
Sprue Base Well (Feed
metal)
Runner

Ingate Ingate
Cavity 1 Cavity 2

Gating Ratio: Sprue : Runner : Gate | Pressurised (1:0.75:0.5) or Unpressurised (1:4:4)

The gating system is the channel network through which molten metal flows from the ladle into the
mould cavity. A well-designed gating system: (1) Fills mould completely before premature solidification
(2) Provides smooth, non-turbulent metal flow (3) Excludes slag, oxides, and inclusions (4) Promotes
directional solidification

Components:
1. Pouring Cup/Basin: Receives metal from ladle. Reduces momentum and turbulence. Traps slag.
 2. Sprue: Vertical channel connecting basin to runner. Tapered (top wider) to maintain back
pressure and prevent aspiration.
3. Sprue Base Well: Enlarged area at sprue bottom. Reduces metal velocity before it enters runner.
4. Runner: Horizontal channel distributing metal to ingates. Should be trapezoidal cross-section.
5. Ingate (Gate): Final entry point into mould cavity. Controls metal flow rate and direction.
6. Riser (Feeder Head): Reservoir of molten metal above or beside the casting. Feeds metal back
into casting as it shrinks.

Gating Ratio:
Gating Ratio = Sprue area : Runner area : Gate area
Pressurized system (ratio 1:0.75:0.5): Gates are smallest — controls flow rate. Back pressure throughout.
Good for ferrous metals. Unpressurized system (ratio 1:4:4): Sprue is smallest — no back pressure. Quiet
filling. Good for non-ferrous (aluminium, magnesium).

Riser Design — Caine's Method:

● Riser must solidify AFTER the casting — riser must have a longer solidification time.
● Chvorinov's Rule: Solidification time T ∝ (V/SA)² where V = volume, SA = surface area.
● Riser (V/SA) must be greater than casting (V/SA) — use a compact (spherical/cylindrical) riser.
● Riser size: Volume of riser = 1.2 × Volume of shrinkage × (100/% volumetric shrinkage).

4.8 Applications of Robotics in Metal Casting Industries

Robotics and automation are increasingly used in foundries to improve safety (foundries are hot,
dangerous environments), quality, and productivity:

<b>Application</b> <b>Description</b> <b>Benefit</b>

Pouring Robots Automated ladle tipping and pouring into moulds

Consistent pour rate, eliminates burns risk

Core Making Robots Robot picks, places, and glues core boxes Consistent core quality, high speed

Sand Mould Handling Robot arm for pattern placement and mould assembly
Precise, repeatable assembly

Casting Extraction Robot removes hot castings from mould after solidification
No human exposure to heat

Grinding & Fettling Robot with grinding wheel removes gates, risers,
Consistent,
fins safe, no dust exposure to humans

Inspection & Vision Robot with camera inspects castings for defects
100% inspection, consistent standards

Dipping & Coating Robot dips patterns in ceramic slurry (investment

Uniform
casting)
coating thickness

Shot Blasting Loading Robot loads/unloads castings into shot blast machine
Automated, reduces cycle time
 UNIT ★ All Units

Quick Revision — Key Formulas and Exam Tips

Click topics in index for quick navigation

IMPORTANT FORMULAS — UNIT 1

■ Cutting Speed: V = π × D × N / 1000 (m/min)
■ Taylor's Tool Life: V × T^n = C → T = (C/V)^(1/n)
■ Merchant's Shear Angle: φ = 45° + α/2 − β/2
■ Cutting Power: P = Fc × V (Watts)
■ Specific Cutting Energy: u = Fc / (b × t) (N/mm²)

IMPORTANT FORMULAS — UNIT 2

■ Lathe RPM: N = 1000 × V / (π × D) RPM
■ Machining Time (Turning): Tm = L / (f × N) minutes
■ Number of Passes: i = Allowance / Depth of cut per pass
■ Speed Ratio: φ = (Nmax/Nmin)^(1/(z-1))
■ Change Gear Ratio: Driver/Driven = p (thread) / p (leadscrew)

IMPORTANT FORMULAS — UNIT 3

■ Drilling Time: Tm = (L + La) / (f × N) minutes
■ Approach Length: La = (D/2) × cot(θ/2) ≈ 0.3D for 118° drill
■ Drill RPM: N = 1000 × V / (π × D) RPM
■ MRR in Drilling: MRR = (π × D²/4) × f × N mm³/min
■ Torque in Drilling: T = Fc × D/2 (N·mm)

IMPORTANT FORMULAS — UNIT 4

■ Chvorinov's Rule (Solidification): T_s = B × (V/SA)² (B = mould constant)
■ Riser must satisfy: (V/SA)_riser > (V/SA)_casting
■ Gating: Pressurized ratio: Sprue : Runner : Gate = 1 : 0.75 : 0.5
■ Gating: Unpressurized ratio: Sprue : Runner : Gate = 1 : 4 : 4
■ Shrinkage allowance (cast iron): 10 mm per meter (1%)
■ Pouring time: t = W / (ρ × Cd × A_gate × √(2gH))

TOP EXAM TIPS

 ■ 1. In Unit 1: ALWAYS draw the Merchant Circle Diagram when asked about cutting forces — label
all 6 forces and angles (α, β, φ).
■ 2. Taylor's equation V×T^n = C is the MOST frequently asked formula — know how to use it to find
tool life when speed changes.
■ 3. For Orthogonal vs Oblique: Remember the key difference is inclination angle i = 0° (orthogonal)
vs i ≠ 0° (oblique).
■ 4. In Unit 2: Lathe parts diagram is frequently asked — draw headstock, tailstock, bed, carriage,
apron, leadscrew, and label all.
■ 5. Machining time formula for lathe: Tm = L/(f×N). Remember to add approach and overrun
(usually 2-3 mm each).
■ 6. Twist drill nomenclature: Remember SEVEN parts — shank, body, flutes, lands, web, chisel
edge, cutting lips + tang for taper shank.
■ 7. Standard drill point angle = 118° for general purpose steel. Know what changes for hard vs soft
materials.
■ 8. In Unit 4: Difference between cope (top) and drag (bottom) mould halves — and what parting
line is.
■ 9. ALWAYS explain ALL 5 pattern allowances in order: Shrinkage, Draft, Machining, Distortion,
Shake.
■ 10. Casting defects: For each defect, write CAUSE + REMEDY — that's where marks are.
■ 11. Gating system: Remember the ORDER: Pouring cup → Sprue → Sprue base well → Runner
→ Ingate → Cavity → Riser.
■ 12. Riser purpose: Feeds shrinkage. Must solidify LAST. Use Chvorinov's rule to size it.
■ 13. Investment casting = Lost Wax casting. Wax pattern melts out. Used for complex, precise
aerospace parts.
■ 14. Die casting vs Permanent mould: Die casting uses HIGH pressure injection. Permanent mould
uses gravity.
■ 15. For robotics in casting: Think about WHERE humans face danger → that's where robots are
used.

Best of luck for your exam! ■ Study these notes, understand the diagrams, and
practice the formulas.
MPR — Manufacturing Process for Robotics | Complete Study Notes