FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

FORENSIC [Link] Villarba

Photography
The word photography is a derivative of two Greek words phos which means “light” and
graphia/graphos/graphein meaning “write”. Therefore photography best translates to “write with light”. (Herschel 1839)

Literal definition:
The word photography is a derivative of two Greek words phos which means “light” and graphia meaning
“write”. Therefore photography best translates to “write with light”. (Herschel 1839)
• Technical/Legal definition:
• Photography is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light, upon
sensitized materials (FILM), with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical process involved
therein. (Aquino 1972)
• Modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording
of the images of scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-rays, ultra-
violet rays, visible light and infrared rays.

Criminal Applications
• “The history of forensic science and criminal investigation is both rich and exciting. The discoveries and
observations of our predecessors are likewise surprising and comforting. The great men and women who
paved a path of enlightenment in crime investigation continue to teach us long after their deaths. These are
the aspirations that we should aspire to endow. We are fortunate to work in a profession with a strong
foundation and bright and seemingly endless future.” (Thomas W. Adir, Editor’ The Scene’)

The Principles of Photography

• by Atty. Avelino Aquino in his book “Police Photography-its principles and practice” is the best articulated.
• What is the difference between photograph and picture and vice versa?
• A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed
aside from sensitized materials.
• Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be
excluded. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material
inside a camera.
• The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes. To make the
formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
• The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and quality of the
exposing light. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development. Too
little will produce a transparent or white shade. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

The Five Elements considered in photography therefore, are:

• 1. Light or electromagnetic radiation- the source of it may either be natural or artificial light
• 2. Camera- a light-tight box which may be of different type, size and use
• 3. Sensitized materials- materials which are sensitive to light such as the films and photographic paper
• 4. Chemical process- a process in photography which involves the use of chemicals to develop and fix latent
prints on the film and to develop and fix images onto the photographic paper. The process also involves
time, temperature, concentration of solutions and degree of agitation.
• 5. Subject or object- this refers to animate and inanimate things persons or materials which shall be the
subject or object of photography.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS-ITS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

- Is a form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion.
- Wave theory
- Travels at a speed of about 186,000 miles per second in air
- Differ in wavelength and frequency

Wavelength
 CREST CREST

Trough
Electromagnetic radiation travels in waves. A wavelength is the distance from the peak of one wave to the
peak of the next wave. Short wavelengths have a shorter distance between peaks than long wavelengths.

Frequency
- Frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.
- The product of the two is the speed of travel

For example
- The speed of light in ordinary glass is only about two-third of its speed in air. Actually, it is only the
wavelength that changes, frequency remains constant.
- However frequency is much difficult to measure, wavelength is measured by the angstrom unit/nanometer
The different energies in the electromagnetic spectrum

Cosmic ray
 -A high-speed particle—either an atomic nucleus or an electron—that travels throughout the Milky Way Galaxy,
including the solar system. Some of these particles originate from the Sun, but most come from sources outside
the solar system and are known as galactic cosmic rays (GCRs).
-Cosmic-ray particles that arrive at the top of the Earth's atmosphere are termed primaries.

Hertzian waves
-The effects of Hertzian waves (electromagnetic waves in the radar and radio range) and of infrared rays usually
are regarded as equivalent to the effect produced by heating.
-The fact that heat production resulted from bombardment of tissue with high-frequency alternating current
(wavelengths somewhat longer than the longest radio waves) was discovered in 1891, and the possibility of its
utilization for medical purposes was realized in 1909, under the term diathermy.

The Energies
- capable of being recorded on sensitized materials are:
1. The X-rays =o1-30 nanometer
2. Ultraviolet rays=30-400 nanometer
3. Visible light =400-700 nanometer
4. and infrared rays.700-1000 u to 2000 nanometer
Sometimes referred to as the four photographic rays of modern photography.

Light rays with a wavelength

-400 to 700 nanometer are referred to a visible light because it is only within these wavelengths that the human
eye is capable of perceiving.
-Those with shorter or longer wavelengths are commonly referred as invisible radiations.

Light energy has several effects on an object

1. Reflected
2. Absorbed
3. Transmitted
4. Converted

Luminescence

Flourescence- is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to another as long as the active energy source is
irradiating the object.

Phosphorescence- the object not only converts the wavelengths for a period of time after the energy source is removed.

White Light

When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nanometers are presented to the eye in early equal quantity, we get the
sensation or perception of colorless or white light

If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass through a prism it will bend the light of shorter wavelength more than
those with longer wavelength thus spreading them out into the visible spectrum.
 Functions of a prism (Right) The reversal of light by a prism; (left) the dispersion of white light into its
component colors by a prism.

Green (1), blue (2), and red (3) are the primary colors of light. A mixture of two primary colors of light can make
cyan (4), yellow (5), or magenta (6). A mixture of all three makes white (7).

Subtractive Color Mixture

• Yellow (1), cyan (2), and magenta (3) are the primary colors of pigments, or inks. A mixture of two primary
colors of pigments can make green (4), red (5), or blue (6). A mixture of all three makes black (7).

Production of Colors
There are a number of different ways in which color is produced.
• Absorption
• The colors of most ordinary objects are due to the fact that does not absorb the same amount of light at each
wavelength.
• Scattering

• The color of the blue sky is due to the scattering of light by the atmosphere. Variation in the density of the
atmospheric gases act in such a way that they scatter light of the shorter wavelength
• Interference
• Color can also be produced by interference of light waves in thin film like in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating
in water. change.
• The light reflected from the top surface of such of such a film undergoes a reversal or phase but the light reflected
from the bottom surface does not undergo this type of change.
• This phenomenon is also responsible for the color pattern known as “Newton’s ring” which sometimes causes
trouble in color printing work.

Flourescence
• This happens when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it at
another wavelength.

Dispersion
• Color may arise from differences in the refractive or bending power of a transparent medium of light of different
wavelength. E.g. rainbow
 Bending of Light
Reflection- is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
Regular reflection- happens when light hits a flat smooth and shiny surface.
Irregular or diffused reflection-occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.

Refraction-the bending of light when passing from one medium to another.

• Diffraction-the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.

Kinds of object as to how they behave to light

Transparent objects-allow sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object of the other side may be
clearly seen.
Translucent objects-allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may not be
clearly distinguished
Opaque object -so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if not
impossible.

Sources of Light

Natural light source

*like the sun

*moon
*stars
* other heavenly bodies, *lightning, fire, etc

Sunlight

Intensity of sunlight depends on

*Weather condition

*Time of the day

*Time of the year

only one characteristic is considered the kind of shadow casted by an object in open space.

Bright sunlight- a lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.
Hazy sunlight-objects in open space cast a transparent shadow
Dull sunlight-objects in open space cast no shadow.
Cloudy bright- objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly visible.
Cloudy dull- objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already limited.

Artificial light source

*Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the continuous radiation and the short duration.
*Continuous radiation-is those that can give illumination continuously. The common light source of this kind is
the fluorescent lamp, gas lamp, etc.
Short duration (Flash unit)

A flash unit gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning metallic

a. Flash bulb
b. Electronic flash

Forensic Light Sources

a. Ultraviolet lamp
b. LASER
c. Alternative Light Sources (ALS)

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS AND PAPERS

A black and white film is basically made up of emulsion, gray or anti-hilation backing, and a support base.
Emulsion- crystals of light sensitive compounds (silver nitrate) evenly distribute throughout plastic base material.

Silver halide emulsions are universally sensitive to the ultraviolet radiations and some wavelengths of blue light. They can
be made sensitive to other colors of light and the near infrared radiation by the addition of special sensitizing dye. Gelatin
is universally used as the medium that holds the crystals in emulsion.

Gray or antihalation backing

This layer is placed between the emulsion and the plastic base of a film to prevent whatever light that passes through the
emulsion and reflected by the base back to the emulsion which forms a “halo.”

Base
Generally film base are made of plastic material. They serve as a support to the emulsion.

Characteristics of B&W films

The characteristics of a B&W film are emulsion speed (sensitivity to light), spectral (wavelength or color) sensitivity and
granularity or graininess.
Although films are universally manufacture in about the same way, there are controlled variations in procedure, choice
and proportion of chemicals used in processing films of different characteristics.

Emulsion Speed
Indicators of Emulsion Speed
ASA (American Standards Association) rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value.(100,200,400)
DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) rating, which is expressed in logarithmic value.
ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed iLEn the combined arithmetical and logarithmic
values.

Spectral Sensitivity (Wavelength color)

a. Blue sensitive film – sensitive to UV rays and blue color only
b. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to UV rays, to blue and green color. It is not sensitive to red color.
c. Panchromatic film – sensitive to UV radiation to blue, green, and red light or all colors.
d. Infra-red film – sensitive to UV rays, to blue, green, red light and infrared rays.
Granularity or Graininess This refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are formed after development of an
exposed film. Generally, the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of
developing solution that is used in processing.

Developing solution for black and white film is known as D-76

Developing solution for photographic papers is known as DEktol

Granularity or graininess
• silver grains that are formed after development of an exposed film.
• metallic silver grains is dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solution that is
used in processing.

B. Color Films
• A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on the same support or base. The top emulsion is sensitive to blue
light only. Since green and red light passes through it without effect, the blue light alone makes the exposure. A
yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs any unused blue light and prevents it from reaching the two
lower emulsion layers.
• The yellow color in the filter layer has no permanent effect on the appearance of the film because it is destroyed
during processing. The middle emulsion is sensitive to green light but not to red light. Like all emulsions, the
middle layer is also sensitive to blue light but the blue light cannot reach it.
• The exposure in this layer is therefore made by green light alone. The bottom layer is sensitivity to green light is
so low as to be negligible. Hence, the exposure in this layer is made by red light alone. These three emulsion
layers are coated on a film base which has an anti-halation backing.

Types of color films

A. Negative or non-reversal film
*The suffix “color” is given to negative or non reversal film
*yields either a negative or a positive image
*Examples are: Kodacolor, Fujicolor, Agfacolor, etc.
B. Reversal film
*The suffix “ chrome” is applied to reversal material
 *processed a positive image or transparency for projection viewing
*Example:Kodachrome, Ektachrome, Fujichrome, Agfachrome, etc.
For Black and White Films and Color Films come in a variety of sizes:
For sizes, there are 8mm., 16mm., 135mm., 120mm., 127mm for roll films and the 2-1/2 “ x 3-1/2”, 4”
x5” x 7”, 8” x 10”, 11 x 14” and 16” x 24”
for sheet films.
For number of exposures, there are 12 exposures, 24 exposures and the 36 exposures.
• PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS (BLACK AND WHITE
• -Modern photographic papers:
– light sensitive coating (emulsion) on a paper base or support
• The emulsion suspended on a gelatin is generally made of silver halide salts.
• To withstand the rigors of soaking in chemical solutions and water during processing and washing
• *the variety of degree in humidity and temperature
• *the base is made of wood pulp.

Characteristics of a photographic paper

[Link] Speed

• Chloride paper- has a slow speed and is suited for contact printing.
• Bromide paper- has a fast speed and is recommended for projection printing or enlarging.
• Chloro-bromide paper-
• is a multi-speed and could be used in both contacts printing and enlarging.

[Link] and development latitude

Latitude is the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal exposure or development without appreciable
loss of print quality.

1. Exposure latitude
Generally, photographic papers do not have wide exposure latitude so exposure must be critical at all times.
2. Development latitude
Papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image tone with reasonable variations in development has
good latitude. However, for best quality the developing time should be as near as those prescribed by the
manufacturer.
C. Contrast range or grade
In black and white printing, it is often necessary to adjust the paper contrast so they can yield a natural scene result from
negatives with density range that are either too high or too low.

Some papers are available in several contrast range or grade while others have built-in contrast control effected by the use
of a filter on the enlarging lens or on the enlarger light source.

In most photographic papers, the contrast range or grade are indicated by numbers-numbers 0 to 5.
1. Numbers 0 and 1 are used on over-exposed or low contrast negative.
2. Numbers 2 are used on normal exposed or normal contrast negatives.
3. Numbers 3 to 5 used in under-exposed or high contrast negatives.

Physical Characteristics

Photographic papers comes in different surfaces base thickness or weight and color.
1. Surface of photographic papers vary in surface texture or degrees gloss or sheen. They are the glossy and smooth,
semi-matte or silk, and the matte or the rough surface.

2. Base weight or thickness under this category, we have the light weight, single weight, medium weight, and the
double weight.

CAMERA
Is a light-tight box with a lens to form an image with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the image a
means of holding a film to record the image and a viewer or viewfinder to show the photographer what the image is.

Camera Classifications:
Cameras are classified as according to:
1. The size of the film they use or format of the picture they produce.
a. Large format cameras
These cameras have bellows and use sheet films in the size 4” x5”, 5” x7” and 8” x 10”
 b. Medium format cameras
These cameras are folding type with bellows and some are rigid-body with film size of 120, 220, 70mm. The
double lens reflex camera falls under this category.
c. Small format cameras
Those with film size 126, 110, 135 mm., 16 mm, and 8 mm.

C. Digital cameras
-This type of camera digitalize the image which can then be put into a computer and enhanced through a software
package such as Adobe photoshop.

There are two types of digital cameras:

1. Those with fixed memory
This camera has a limited number of images it can capture. The user will then be forced to erase the image or
download it into a computer.
2. Those with removable memory
This camera allow the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards in much the same fashion as film is
exposed and replaced with new film. Removable media varies in size, in price, and compatibility with computers
and other cameras.

features of a digital camera:

1. Images produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in a computer monitor or T.V. set for hard copies of
such image a computer printer is used.
2. A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor Digital “ point and shoot” camera sometimes not have an optical
viewfinder. These camera feature a color LCD screen on the camera back or one that can be swing on the side
which serve multiple duty as viewfinder, control panel, and instant playback monitor.
3. Flash unit- although generally not necessary but is required for back lighted subjects or really low light
level.
4. Zoom lens capability- wide-angle, normal, telephoto, even macro.
5. Sound recording- where you can record audio chips such as short description of the image taken or noise
in the surrounding area.
6. Removable lens that can see around corners.

The simplest type of camera is the box type, also commonly referred to as the
Instamatic or the newer generation “point and shoot” cameras.
-With this type of camera, all you need to do is to open the back, load the film, close the back, wind the film
then take the picture. There are no exposures and focusing control to adjust because it is fixed focused, with
fixed shutter speed, and a fixed lens or diaphragm opening.

In forensic photography, the most ideal camera type to use is the single-lens- reflex (SLR) camera. It is
light in weight, compact, and versatile. It has the capability of interchangeability of lenses and a wide range of
accessories can be attached to its body, like extension rings or tubes, flash units, filters, cable release, motor
drive, remote control, etc. for better photographic efficiency and affectivity.
C. Methods of Image Formation
1. Pinhole-is a small or tiny hole which produces an image entirely free from distortion but its image is so dim
that it is impractically long even if the fastest film is used. It is also not practical to enlarge the hole for more light
because the larger the hole, the more blurred is the image.
2. Shadow method- image is formed by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of application
of this method is in X-ray photography and in making photographs.
D. Lens
A lens is a transparent medium which either converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image. Generally,
there are two types of lenses:

1. The convergent of positive or convex lens

This lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light passing through it are bended toward each
other on the other side of the lens meeting at a point. It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or
where light is coming from.
2. The divergent, negative, or concave lens
 This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides, light passing through it are bended away from
each other as if coming from a point. It produce a virtual image (an image as seen in a place mirror or seem to
emanate without actually doing so) on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.

E. Inherent Lens Defects or Aberrations

The ideal lens for forensic photography would be capable of producing critically sharp and distortion-free image. Some
other lenses are unfit for the preparation of photographic evidence because they have optical defects known as aberrations.
They are the following:
1. Spherical aberration - When light passing through near the central part of a converging lens used are bended more
sharply than those rays falling in the edge, thus the rays coming from the edges are focused on a plane nearer the lens than
those coming from the central part. Manufacturer of lenses tries to reduce this defect to a negligible quantity by using
lenses of different curvature.
2. Coma- This is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The
defect is noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects
reproduced at the corners of the negative are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it is reduced by
combinations of lenses of different curvatures.
3. Curvature of field -this is a kind of defect where the image formed by a lens comes to a sharper focus in a curved
surface than a flat surface. The correction of this defect is similar to spherical aberration and coma.
4. Distortion-A lens with distortion is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly; either horizontal or vertical lines in
an [Link] is caused by the placement of the diaphragm. If the diaphragm is placed in front of the lens, straight lines
near the edges of the object tends to bulge outside. This is known as the barrel distortion.
If the diaphragm is placed behind of the lens, straight lines near the edges tends to bend inward. This is known as the
pincushion distortion. Distortion is remedied by placing the diaphragm in between the lens component and the two
opposite distortions will neutralize each other.
5. Chromatic aberrations
this defect is the inability of the lens to bring photographic rays of different wave lengths to the same focus.
Ultraviolet rays are bent the most while infrared rays are bent the least when they pass through the lens. This defect is
reduced by utilizing compound lenses made up of single lens made up of glass of different curvatures.
6. Astigmatism
-with this defect, a single point from a subject falling near the margin of the negative will be imaged not as a point but
as a two perpendicular short lines, one of which is always be out of focus while the other is sharp. This defect is lessened
by combining lenses of special kind of glass having the correct combinations of spherical surfaces.
7. Chromatic difference of magnification
This defect is present when the size of image produced by photographic rays of one wave length is different from the
size produced by another. Size of the image increases as the wavelength of the rays decreases. In color photography it
produces a rainbow colored fringes around the edges of objects while in black and white photography it appears as a slight
blue.
Most of these aberrations cannot be eliminated but each one of them can be reduced to a level that its truth bearing
quality for evidence use is legally acceptable.

Types of lenses as According to their Degree of Correction to Lens Aberrations

1. Acrhromatic lens- is corrected for chromatic aberration.
2. Ra pid-rectillinear lens-is corrected for distortion.
3. Anastigmat lens-is corrected for astigmatism as well as the other lens defects.
4. Apochromat lens-is also corrected for astigmatism but with higher degree of correction to color.

Focal length
A fundamental characteristic of a lens is its focal length. This will determine the size of an image of an object at a
given distance, and the area of coverage of the lens.

Focal length is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or
focused at infinity position or far distance.

Types of Lenses as According to Focal Length

Wide angle lens-a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material. This lens will have a wide
area of coverage but produces a small image size. This is usually used in taking pictures indoor or inside a small room. It
is also used outdoor to get a panoramic view of a scene.
Normal lens - is a lens with a focal length approximately equal or more but not more than twice the diagonal of its
material. It is referred to as normal because its coverage corresponds to nearly the coverage of the human eye.
Telephoto lens - is a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative material. This lens produces a
bigger image of objects at far distance but its real of coverage is smaller.
Zoom lens - is a lens with variable focal length.

Lens Diaphragm
In between the lens component of a camera is a metal diaphragm which can be expanded or constricted by moving a
turning ring on the lens mount barrel. The size of the opening is indicated by markings of f-numbers.

The common series of f-numbers are 1.8, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16 and There are some cameras whose f-
numbers starts at 1.4 or 1.2, or 1.1 and the lowest numerical f-number was the 1.09 fitted on a Canon 7 camera.

These f-numbers indicate in succession decrease by one-half in light intensity as the number increases.

This means that an aperture of f1.8 will admit twice more light than f2 and so on. Conversely, light intensity will
decrease by one-half as the numerical value increases. This also means that f8 will admit twice less light than f5.6.

The diaphragm serves as controller of speed, depth of field and definitions.

1. Diaphragm as controller of speed

By expanding or constricting the diaphragm, it is possible to regulate the amount of light passing through the lens.
The diaphragm serves as a speed throttle. In the series of f-numbers, the lowest number is the widest opening or the one
that give the most amount of light and conversely, the highest number is the smallest opening or the one that give the least
amount of light.
2. Diaphragm as controller of depth of field.
In theory, it is not possible to focus a lens in more than one distance at the same time. In actual practice however, in
any given lens objects that are nearer or farther than the object focused upon will be reasonably sharp.

Depth of field is defined as the distance between the nearest and the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when
the lens is set or focused on a given distance.

There are influencing factors of depth of field.

a. The size of the diaphragm opening.

The general rule governing this factor is: The smaller the opening, the longer is the depth of field. Conversely, the
wider is the opening, the shorter is the depth of field.
The exception to this rule is the presence or the effect of diffraction when a small opening is used.
b. The focal length of the lens.
The general rule is: the shorter the focal length, the wider or longer is the depth of field and vice versa the longer
is the focal length the shorter is the depth of field.
c. Circle of confusion
Another factor that affects depth of field is the size of the circle of confusion which is considered acceptable.

Circle of confusion refers to a small circle which is seen by the eye, not as a circle but a dot or point.

d. Hyperfocal distance
This is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening which will give
the maximum depth of field.

3. Diaphragm as controller of definition.

The term definition is the ability of the lens to form clear images of fine details. Not even a theoretically perfect lens
would be capable of imaging a point source of light as a geometrical point. All practical lenses image such a point as a
small blur which changes in character with the change of lens aperture. Decreasing the lens aperture improves definition
as it removes the small amount of haze caused by residual aberrations.

Photographic Perspective and Correct Viewing Distance

The human eye sees in three dimensions but a lens reproduces a view in two dimensions. The missing, depth – is
suggested mainly by the relative size and position of various objects in the photograph. The relations of these objects or
perspective and therefore the naturalness of the photograph are determined by the position of the camera. A
camera position too close to the subject results in an exaggerated magnification of the parts nearer the lens.

Correct perspective in a final photograph depends largely upon the distance upon which it is viewed. The correct
viewing distance which likewise gives the correct perspective corresponds to the focal length of the lens of the camera
when a contact print of the negative is made. Frequently, this distance is too short for the eye to be able to see it clearly
and comfortably so there is a need of enlargement. Enlarged photographs require a viewing distance equal to the camera
focal length times or multiplied by the number of diameter or degree of enlargement of the photograph.

Focusing
When light passes through a convergent lens, these light rays are bended toward each other meeting at a point which
is the point of focus. When the subject distance to the lens is short or near the converging point of the light rays behind the
lens increases and vis-à-vis. Since the light bending power of a lens is fixed, it is necessary to adjust the lens so the point
of focus will be on the film plane.

Focusing
is defined as the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. Focusing is the main factor that will
determine the sharpness of the images on a photograph. Of course, there are other factors to be considered like camera
movement or the motion of the subject when the photograph is actually being taken. Though the focus is accurate, yet
these factors will blur image of the subject being photographed.

Methods of focusing
1. Scale-bed or focusing scale
On the mount of the barrel of the camera lens there are two sets of pre-setted distance expressed in feet (ft) and in
meters (m). This is the scale bed or focusing scale. These distances correspond to the distance from the camera lens to the
subject.
2. Rangefinders
is a mechanism used to measure the angle of convergence of light as seen from the two apertures or opening but
viewed at the same time. In modern cameras, the rangefinder is coupled with the viewfinder. There are two types of
rangefinders.
– Split-image

• With this type, when one looks through the viewfinder of a camera, there is a circle on the central part with a line
running across the circle. To determine focus with this type, pick a vertical line in the subject and view it on the
circle. If the straight line is cut and separated from each other, the focusing is not correct. Rotate the barrel of the
lens until the said straight line is viewed as straight and the lens are in focus.
• This method of focusing is standard in single lens reflex camera. since the viewing and focusing is made from
light rays passing through the lens, it is not affected by the problem of parallax.
• Co-incident image.
This method of focusing is usually used on compact cameras with a fixed lens. With this type, when you look into
the viewfinder, you’ll notice a rectangle- in other cameras, its circle- on the upper left portion of the viewfinder.
For emphasis, manufacturer of the camera usually add color to it, generally a tint of yellow or green.
 • To focus with this method, pick a single detail in the subject for viewing in the view finder. If the single detail
chosen appears with double image, the distance or focus is incorrect. Rotate the lens barrel until the two images
viewed will coincide with each other and you are “in” focus.
Ground glass
• This method of focusing is accomplished by direct observation of the image of the subject on a glass with finely
grounded surface known as ground glass. This ground glass is found at the back of a camera or in the case of
modern cameras, also couple with the viewfinder. The point of focus is where the image is sharpest. If the image
appears to be blurred, fuzzy or not sharp, it is out of focus.
• Some single-lens-reflex cameras use a small central circle, a micro prism on this ground glass viewfinder for
easier focusing. The micro prism will usually shatter an out of focus image. When the image is exactly in focus
the prisms seems to disappear.
• Depth of Focus or Focal Range

• When a lens is focused on any given subject, there is one lens-to-film distance where the image is sharpest, as the
lens is moved close to the film or farther away from the film, the sharpness decreases.
• There is a small range of movement on either side of the position of the best focus in which the degree of
unsharpness is acceptable, and the total range is called the depth of focus.

Parallax
Parallax is the change of appearance and orientation of subjects when seen from two viewpoints. It is also used to
refer to the distance between the viewpoints themselves.

Human vision of depth depends on parallax. Each eye see objects from two viewpoint about 65mm (2-1/2 inches)
apart. The left and right eye images on the retina have parallax that is they are not identical. The spacing between
various parts of the subject being viewed varies according to the angular difference. These differences are
interpreted by the brain as difference and three dimensional depths are perceived.

Shutters
A shutter is a device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for accurately timed intervals then closes
automatically.

Two Types of Shutters

Between the lens or central shutter.

*Location
*Action
* This type of shutter, can be synchronized with a flash unit with every shutter speed.

Focal Plane Shutter.

*Location
*Action
*This type of shutter can give a faster shutter speeds than the between-the-lens shutter.
 Exposure
Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material or substance sensitive to
energy. a visible record. Exposure is quantitative: it is the product of the total light intensity and the length of time it
strikes the emulsion.

1. Calculating Film Exposure

Actually, there is not one correct exposure, but there is an ideal or proper exposure. Exposure is therefore
subjective and errors in calculation could result in either “over-exposure” or “under-exposure”. One good rule in
judging proper exposure is the presence or visibility of details of the subject, not only in the middle tones but also
in the highlights and shadow areas.

A simple rule
a. Film speed
b. Lighting condition
c. Type of subject

A general formula used in exposure setting of an average or normal subject in the sun or open sky.

2. Bracketing
This technique is used when exposure calculation that will give a desired result is uncertain; make several
exposures of less than and more than the calculated exposure by two or four f-stops each.

3. Exposure meter
Photographic exposure meter measures light intensities and have calculators or computer to find camera settings
that will produce good exposures. The exposure calculators are mechanical device or sets of reference tables from
which exposure data can be obtained on observed subjects and light conditions. The heart of the meter is a light
cell made of:
a. Selenium (Se) cells
b. Cadmium sulfide (Cds) cell
c. Silicon (Si) “blue” cell
d. Gallium-arsenic-phosphorous cell
Proper exposure with the use of an exposure meter is done by:

a. Incident-light meter reading. The illumination falling from a source or sources onto a scene or subject is measured.
b. Reflected-light meter reading from an 18 percent gray card held at the subject position or area or from a key subject
area like the skin.
. Existing light, also called ambient light or available photography

This is the taking of photographs using only the light that happens to be at the scene. This could be from natural light
sources, from windows, doors, skylight, and twilight or after dark, or from artificial light sources like table lamps, ceiling
fixtures light, spotlight, neon lights, candles, fireplace or bonfire, etc. Because of the very wide variety of light sources
and lightning conditions, exposure setting to be used can only be suggested with little or no assurance of correctness.

The use of exposure meter or bracketing technique would be of great help however. The use of fast lenses with lens
speed of f.18 or f1.4 or f1.2 or f1.1 is highly advised plus the use of high speed film with the emulsion speeds of ISO
400/27º or ISO 800/30º or ISO 1600/33º. The use of the tripod or any other camera mount for long exposure setting
should also be considered. The saying reality. “if you can see it, you can photograph it,” is a

Flash photography
Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an electric discharge through a gas-filled tube
(electronic flash) is the most common supplemental light for still photography. A flash unit offers a great light output,
in compact lightweight and economical form. It avoids the effect of heat and glare during set-up. Which is common with
continuous light sources? Since it is battery operated, it is ideal for field work where AC power is available.

Exposure with flash

1. Shutter Speed
Because it is the important for the camera shutter to be open for this brief period of time. The flash and the shutter
are usually synchronized. Synchronization is the timing of the camera shutter and the flash so that when the
shutter is fully opened
 That’s the time that the flash will yield its highest peaks of illumination. To be synchronized, a shutter speed of
1/60, or slower is used. (The older model camera with cloth curtain and for the newer camera model with metal
curtains, a shutter speed of 1/135 or slower may be used.
2. Lens opening
Flash exposure maybe computed by the use of the “guide number’ of a flash unit.

Electronic flash units guide number are based reflected light output of the unit based on the Beam Candle Power
Seconds (BCPS) of Effective Candle Power Seconds (ECPS). The guide numbers of the different film speeds and
the output of the electronic flash unit is usually found on a reference table at the back of the flash unit.

A guide number is usually dependent on the film speed and the light output.

Guide numbers are used to find the f-numbers at which the exposure should be made on the following formula:

Some electronic flash units are automatic. With such unit, the camera lens aperture is set at single f number for all
distances within a range, depending on the film speed, and the unit automatically control the duration of the flash
to give the correct exposure.
On- camera flash
Flash on the camera or held close to the camera with a bracket provides a direct, hard light. Because it puts the
maximum level of light on the subject, it creates a problem of the “red eye” in a human subject, harsh shadow of
subjects with a near background, and reflections from a shiny spot in the background.
Off- camera flash
[Link] flash- more than one flash unit is used one is connected to the camera with a flash cord while other is
attached to a “slave” unit.
2. Fill-in flash- when you want to eliminate or add illumination to shadow areas or subject so detail that otherwise
will not appear clearly in the final picture.
3. Open flash- the shutter speed is set at “B” and once the shutter is open; the flash is activated or fired release
manually. Then the shutter is released or is closed.
“Painting with light”- is another form of open flash technique. With this technique, the flash unit is moved from
place to place, fired manually until all areas of the scene or large subjects are fully illuminated and the shutter is then
released or is closed.
This technique is used in photographing a stadium or in night photography and the subject is a big building or an open
field with little or no other source of illumination.
4. Bounce flash- instead of the light going directly to the subject, it is bounced on light colored ceilings or walls near
the subject. This will give a softer effect on the subject, and also diminish or reduce harsh shadow that will be casted
by the subject. On camera flash unit with a movable flash ready is capable of bounce flash.

CHEMICAL PROCESSING
After the exposure the next step would generally be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps
are development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color development, stop-fix, and
stabilizer.

1. Developing
is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In black-and-white emulsion, the
image is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In a color emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan,
yellow, and magenta dye.
In development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduces exposed silver halide crystals to form grains
of metallic silver. This process or reaction is the same in both black and white films and photographic papers.
2. Stop-bath
halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination of the developer and fixer from
each other.
3. Fixation-
A fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough washing. In this processing stage,
the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and remove from the emulsion of the photographic
material.

FILM PROCESSING
Film processing can be carried out in trays, tanks, or mechanized equipment. Panchromatic materials must be handled
in total darkness. Other materials like blue films, orthochromatic films and printing papers are handled under a safelight.

1. Equipment for film processing

 a. Tank or tray
b. Developing reel
c. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). Some .35mm. films have a reusable cartridge that can be snapped open by hand
but others can only be opened with a pair of pliers.
d. Scissors to cut the tongue of the film
e. Thermometer
f. Timer
g. Funnel
h. Photographic sponge
i. Film clips for drying
j. Glass or plastic bottles (gallon size) for storing mixed solutions.

Small format films like the .35 mm is best developed in a cylindrical daylight developing tank that accommodates a
spiral reel. The tank and the reel can be a stainless steel or made of hard plastic. These tanks usually have a light tight lid
with provision for pouring solutions in and out while covered so that only one tank is required for the entire process.
The plastic reel is loaded by simply pushing the film into the spiral from the outer end. It has a flange that moves with
back and forth ratchet action after the film had been engaged on the outside guide slots; the ratchet movement feeds it
smoothly into the groves. Plastic reel can be adjusted to accommodate different film size.

FILM PROCESSING OF FILM DEVELOPMENT

1. Tank method of film development

a. Mix the developer, stop-bath, and the fixer according to instructional manuals. Then bring it to temperature which
is 20-21Cº or 68-70Fº.
b. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and the tank so they can be readily located in the dark.
c. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap opposite the end, where the long spool
core protrudes. Extend the film then remove it from the tips in the spool core. Then reel it.

Reeling Procedure
• To load a metal spiral reel, hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one hand while the other
hand holds the reel. Engage the film’s end at the center clip or hook of the reel.

• Slightly squeeze the film with by pressing between the thumb and forefinger to narrows just enough to fit into the
reel. Turn the reel with other hand to pull the film onto the reel.

Do not apply excessive pressure with the hand holding and squeezing the film. Let the film freely, it will straighten
out full width in the spiral space of the reel.

It is advised to the beginners to practice with unwanted film several times, first with the lights on to make sure that the
film will not buckle or one side of the film touching another in the reel.

In such case, the portion of the image where the layer touched will not be developed because the solution cannot get
it. Once you get the feel of it, start the practice with eyes closed to simulate the darkness until the exercise is perfected.

• After the reeling of the film is done place it inside the daylight developing tank then cover it. White light can now
be opened. Remove the cover of the tank and pour slowly until the tank is full, cover it then invert the tank then
agitate it for a few seconds. Timer should start now.
• Intermittent agitation should be made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes pour out or drain the
developer tank.
• e. Pour in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds drain out the stop-bath. Nest is to
pour in the fixing bath.
• Agitation should be done every so often and after 15-20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank.
• Note: Used developer, stop-bath, and fixer can be used again and again but instead of pouring them back in the
bottles of fresh solutions, pour them in a separate container so it will not contaminate the fresh or unused
solutions.
• f. You now wash the negative for several changes or preferably in running water for another 15-20 minutes.
• g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse it in water then squeeze it in water
then squeeze it to remove excess water.
• Wipe the negative with the sponge slowly to remove the water adhering on the negative. This must do on both
sides of the film. Water adheres on the surface of the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without
wiping.
• h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.
 Application of Photography in Police work

• Photography has and still continues to serve a wide variety of functions in our criminal justice system. The extent
to which photography can be applied in the different pillars of our criminal justice system will depend on the size
of the organization, its financial capabilities, the enthusiasm, imagination, and skill of its personnel.
• General application
1. Identification purposes
2. Recording and preserving of evidences
3. Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye.
4. Recording action of offenders
5. For court exhibits
6. For crime prevention
7. Public information
8. Police training
2. Recording and preserving of evidences
a. Crime scenes (homicide or murder, theft or robbery, arson, other crimes listed in the Revised Penal Code as
well as other special laws (organized or syndicated, crime cyber-space or computer crimes).
b. Traffic accidents
c. Objects of evidences (guns, bullet or shell, knife, clothing, shoes, other personal belongings, etc.).
3. Discovering and proving the evidences not readily seen by the naked eye.
a. Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers.
b. Magnification or enlargements of tiny objects by the application of photomicrography or photomacrography

* Photomicrography- is the taking of photograph through a microscope. The camera is attached to the eyepiece
and it is the lens of the microscope that is used in photographing.
* Photomacrography or Macrophotography-is the taking of photograph with a short focus lens. It is an
extreme close-up of small objects to photograph to 1:1 or an actual size or slightly bigger.
*Microphotography-is the taking of a photograph of an object in a much reduced size or tiny images of large
objects, for example, a microfilm.

Recording action of offenders

a. surveillance
b. entrapment
c. extra-judicial confession
d. re-enactment of a crime
For court exhibits
a. individual photographs
b. slide projections
c. comparison charts
d. motion picture or video coverage/presentation

. For crime prevention

Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, modus operandi of “con game artist”, snatchers, civil
defense, and informational services shared with other local or foreign police organization, business establishments (banks,
hotels) and industrial complex security.

Public Information
• Police training

• Prepared training films or video presentations of personnel indoctrination, police tactics, investigative techniques,
traffic control, civil disturbances (demonstrations) control, riots or prison disorders, documentaries for pre-and
post-briefings on police operations, etc.
• Specific Applications
• 1. Identification Photographs
• Should be an accurate likeness of the subject, from which he can be recognized by witnesses or police
officers.
• These photographs should strive to produce every MOLE, SCAR, WRINKLES AND OTHER MARKS.
• The standard photographs for Identification
• Is the head and shoulder shot of the subject’s front and profile (either full side view or quarter face).
• The ear of a person is a very distinctive feature for identification so every effort to show it must be observed
especially with women or even men with long hairs.
• Shots with closed eyes or squinted eyes
 • Should be retaken to show the normal appearance of the subject’s eyes.
• Full length shot or stand-up are sometimes taken on suspects of serious crimes or like in a robbery case where
witness has seen the suspect at a distance or while running.

• A person should be photographed with his head uncovered. If he normally wear glasses, he should be
photographed with it and another without glasses.
• At a police headquarters or station, an ample space should be reserved for an identification gallery where two
lights with reflector, a clear and white background can be set-up so identification photographs can be
standardized. The basic arrangement would be that the lamp on the right of the camera will be 12 to 18 inches
higher than the lens while the lamp on the left will be 12 to 18 inches lower than the lens. The camera must be
parallel to the subject’s face with the lens on the level of the eye of the subject.
• The use of the electronic flash unit for this purpose is also resorted to because of expediency but care must be
exercised that will not produce harsh or distinct shadow of the subject in the background
• The subject is made to stand very close to the background or to the stand about 2 feet away.
• In taking photographs of unknown cadavers for identification purposes, the face should be washed and cleared of
mud, dirt, grease, or other foreign matters before the picture taking. Usually the subject is lying on his back so to
maintain the parallelism of the camera and the face the photographer must stand straddle on the body of the
victim.
• A data board bearing the name of the subject or his alias, the police department or unit handling the case, case
number, the date, are the some of information that are usually included in the photograph.

In photographing objects of evidential traces

Things to remember:
1. The original appearance and condition when received for laboratory examination
2. The standard procedure on lighting
3. Camera position
4. Data board
5. Ruler or measuring device at the bottom side of the subject must be observed all the times.
6. While black and white photographs are still accepted,
7. Color photographs are more preferred.

Crime scene Photography

General consideration

-Primary purpose of crime scene photography

a. Provide information
-Photography is used as permanent visual record of the exact and original location and condition of the
different aspects of the scene and vital evidences of proof.

Photographing of the crime scene

• Should be done COMPLETELY AND ACCURATELY before objects of evidence are removed, altered, or lost.

Generally, Crime scene photography serve in the following areas

1. To provide the investigator and the prosecutor with an accurate pictorial presentation of the appearance and
position of objects at the scene.
2. To aid in the questioning of suspects and witnesses when their sworn statements are being taken.
3. To present to the court an accurate picture of the scene thereby enabling them to understand the evidences
better and evaluate intelligently the testimony concerning the distances of the defendants and witnesses.

The aim or goal is to record maximum information in a series of photographs which will enable a viewer to
understand WHERE and HOW the crime was committed. The term “ crime scene” refers not only to immediate
locality in which the criminal act was perpetrated but also to adjacent areas where important acts took place
immediately before or after the commission of the crime.

Remember the forensic photography is the “DOCUMENTATION” of the scene. It is an accurate and logical
“STORY” as told by the scene in visual form. The immense value of the completeness must be the priority over
the cost of the films and other materials. It is wise move t take mote pictures than too few.
 Each crime has individual features which will be photographed. KEEP in mind the NATURE of the offense and
try to show the features that establishes the elements of the offense.

Basic guideline, the approach to complete representation of the subject matters is the progression of “general to
specific”
a. The long range or general view
b. The medium range or medium view
c. The close up
d. The extreme close up

The Photographic range or views can be categorized as:

a. Focusing on the location of the crime.

b. concentrating on the features of the offense.
c. Centering on the result of the crime.
[Link] the physical evidence existing at the scene.
e. Focusing on the FOLLOW UP activity not directly occurring at the immediate scene

Focusing on the location of the crime.

• Crime scene areas like the aerial photograph
• Exterior view of a whole building including nearly several rooms
a. Focusing on the location of the crime.
b. House break -in
c. Ingress and egress

FOLLOW UP activity not directly occurring at the immediate scene

• Outgrowth of the crime investigation
• Photograph of the autopsy
• Bruises or wounds
• Extreme close-up photographs
– Fingerprints made of grease, blood or hardened paint
Markers in the field of view
• It is wise and prudent to take pictures without and one with.
• Legally accepted markers
– Rulers, yardsticks, or tape measures can show relative sizes and distances between objects.
– It can show the degree of magnification or reduction of the final print
• This rulers must be placed beside the subject. In case of the fingerprints or handwritings, they are usually placed
at the base to maintain uniformity of location in photographs that will be used for comparison charts.
• Location markers
• Sticks or numbered signs to show specific locations of small objects not readily seen in an over-all photograph.
• Examples:
– Fired bullets
– Empty shells
– Etc.
• Specific crimes
• Homicide or murder
– Photographs concerning the manner of death of the victim
– General consideration
1. Exterior of the building (manner of entry, exit, places of concealment, visibility of various points, shoe or
footprints, tire impressions, broken branches or shrubs.
2. The room or area where the body was found. Also adjoining rooms.
3. Evidence of struggle such as overturned chairs broken objects or articles in disarray.
• 4. Signs of activities prior to the occurrence like the presence of playing cards, bottles of liquors, cigarettes
butts, T.V. or radio sets on etc. In general, articles apparently in use immediately prior to the commission of the
crime or articles that have been disturbed from ordinary position as well as articles whose presence is foreign or
“don’t belong” to the scene.
• To show the body in the scene and its position in relation to the articles in the room, at least two photographs of
the body should be taken at RIGHT ANGLE to each other and the camera position drawn from the normal
position of an observer. Other photographs should include close-ups of visible wounds and the other special
aspects of the condition of the body as well as the weapon.
• To show the body in the scene and its position in relation to the articles in the room, at HANGING
• In death apparently due to hanging, doubt sometimes exist whether the occurrence is homicide, suicide or
accidental
• The original position of the body is of prime importance.
• DROWNING
• ELECTROCUTION
• EXPLOSION
• ROBBERY CASE
• SEX OFFENSES
• ARSON OR FIRE
• Traffic
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