158 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

8 supply. The common connection to these two

supplies (i.e., the 0 V supply connection) acts as the
applied). The effect of providing negative feedback
is to reduce the loop voltage gain to a value that is
common rail in our circuit. The input and output both predictable and manageable. Practical closed-
voltages are usually measured relative to this rail. loop voltage gains range from one to several
Operational amplifiers thousand but note that high values of voltage gain
may make unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth,
Operational amplifier parameters see later.
Operational amplifiers are analogue integrated Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio
circuits designed for linear amplification that offer Before we take a look at some of the characteristics of output voltage to input voltage but with negative
near-ideal characteristics (virtually infinite voltage of ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ operational amplifiers it is feedback is applied, hence:
gain and input resistance coupled with low output important to define some of the terms and VOUT
resistance and wide bandwidth). parameters that we apply to these devices. AV(CL) =
Operational amplifiers can be thought of as V IN
universal ‘gain blocks’ to which external Open-loop voltage gain where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT
components are added in order to define their and VIN are the output and input voltages
function within a circuit. By adding two resistors, The open-loop voltage gain of an operational respectively under closed-loop conditions. The
we can produce an amplifier having a precisely amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to closed-loop voltage gain is normally very much
defined gain. Alternatively, with two resistors and input voltage measured with no feedback applied. less than the open-loop voltage gain.
two capacitors we can produce a simple band-pass In practice, this value is exceptionally high
filter. From this you might begin to suspect that (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to
Figure 8.1 A typical operational amplifier. This
operational amplifiers are really easy to use. The considerable variation from one device to another. Example 8.1
device is supplied in an 8-pin dual-in-line (DIL)
good news is that they are! Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of
package. It has a JFET input stage and produces a An operational amplifier operating with negative
typical open-loop voltage gain of 200,000 as the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device, thus:
feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V when
Symbols and connections VOUT supplied with an input of 400 µV. Determine the
AV(OL) = value of closed-loop voltage gain.
VIN
The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown
where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT Solution
in Fig. 8.2. There are a few things to note about
this. The device has two inputs and one output and and VIN are the output and input voltages Now:
no common connection. Furthermore, we often respectively under open-loop conditions.
don’t show the supply connections—it is often In linear voltage amplifying applications, a large V OU T
amount of negative feedback will normally be
AV(C L) =
clearer to leave them out of the circuit altogether! V IN
In Fig. 8.2, one of the inputs is marked ‘*’ and applied and the open-loop voltage gain can be
the other is marked ‘+’. These polarity markings Figure 8.2 Symbol for an operational amplifier thought of as the internal voltage gain provided by Thus:
have nothing to do with the supply connections— the device.
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in 2 2 ×106
they indicate the overall phase shift between each AV(CL) = = = 5,000
input and the output. The ‘+’ sign indicates zero decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this case: 400 ×10 6
400
phase shift whilst the ‘*’ sign indicates 180° phase Expressed in decibels (rather than as a ratio) this is:
VOUT
shift. Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted AV (O L ) = 2 0 lo g 10
waveform, the ‘*’ input is often referred to as the V IN AV(CL) = 20 log10 (5,000) = 20 × 3.7 = 74 dB
inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is known
as the non-inverting input. Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage
gains of 90 dB, or more. Input resistance
Most (but not all) operational amplifiers require
a symmetrical supply (of typically ±6 V to ±15 V) The input resistance of an operational amplifier is
which allows the output voltage to swing both Closed-loop voltage gain
defined as the ratio of input voltage to input current
positive (above 0 V) and negative (below 0 V). expressed in ohms. It is often expedient to assume
Figure 8.3 shows how the supply connections The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational
amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to that the input of an operational amplifier is purely
would appear if we decided to include them. Note resistive though this is not the case at high
that we usually have two separate supplies; a Figure 8.3 Supply connections for an operational input voltage measured with a small proportion of
the output fed back to the input (i.e. with feedback frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance may
positive supply and an equal, but opposite, negative amplifier become significant. The input resistance of
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 159 160 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

operational amplifiers is very much dependent on output voltage to short-circuit output current, where KVOUT is the change in output voltage (in Table 8.1 Comparison of operational amplifier
the semiconductor technology employed. In hence: volts) and Kt is the corresponding interval of time parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices
practice values range from about 2 MG for (in s).
VOUT(OC)
common bipolar types to over 1012 G for FET and ROUT = Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/µs) and Parameter Ideal Real
CMOS devices. I OUT(SC) typical values range from 0.2 V/µs to over 20 V/µs.
Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to Slew rate imposes a limitation on circuits in which Voltage Gain Infinite 100,000
input current: where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), large amplitude pulses rather than small amplitude
VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in volts) Input Resistance Infinite 100 MG
sinusoidal signals are likely to be encountered.
V and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in Output resistance Zero 20 G
RIN = IN amps).
IIN Bandwidth Infinite 2 MHz
where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN is Input offset voltage Slew-rate Infinite 10 V/µs
the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the input
Input offset Zero Less than 5 mV
current (in amps). Note that we usually assume that An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero
the input of an operational amplifier is purely output voltage when 0 V difference is applied to its
resistive though this may not be the case at high inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal
frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance may balance, there may be some small voltage present at The characteristics of most modern integrated
become significant. the output. The voltage that must be applied circuit operational amplifiers (i.e. ‘real’ operational
The input resistance of operational amplifiers is differentially to the operational amplifier input in amplifiers) come very close to those of an ‘ideal’
very much dependent on the semiconductor order to make the output voltage exactly zero is operational amplifier, as witnessed by the data
technology employed. In practice, values range known as the input offset voltage. shown in Table 8.1.
from about 2 MG for bipolar operational amplifiers Input offset voltage may be minimized by
to over 1012 G for CMOS devices. applying relatively large amounts of negative
feedback or by using the offset null facility Example 8.3
provided by a number of operational amplifier
Example 8.2 devices. Typical values of input offset voltage A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input
range from 1 mV to 15 mV. Where AC rather than of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 µs for the
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of DC coupling is employed, offset voltage is not output voltage to change from *5 V to +5 V,
2 MG Determine the input current when an input normally a problem and can be happily ignored. determine the slew rate of the device.
voltage of 5 mV is present.
Figure 8.4 Slew rate for an operational amplifier Solution
Full-power bandwidth
Solution
The slew rate can be determined from:
Now: The full-power bandwidth for an operational
amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which VOUT 10 V
Slew rate = = = 2.5 V/µs
V the maximum undistorted peak output voltage Operational amplifier characteristics t 4 µs
RIN = IN swing falls to 0.707 of its low frequency (d.c.)
IIN
value (the sinusoidal input voltage remaining
Having now defined the parameters that we use to Example 8.4
thus constant). Typical full-power bandwidths range
from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed describe operational amplifiers we shall now A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of
VIN 5×10 3 devices. consider the desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ 15 V/µs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit with a
IIN = = = 2.5×10 9 A = 2.5 nA operational amplifier. These are:
RIN 2 ×106 voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of 100
Slew rate (a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high mV is applied to its input, determine the time taken
(ideally infinite). for the output to change level.
Output resistance
Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage (b) The input resistance should be very high
with time, when a rectangular step input voltage is (ideally infinite). Solution
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is
applied (as shown in Fig. 8.4). The slew rate of an (c) The output resistance should be very low
defined as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage
operational amplifier is the rate of change of output (ideally zero). The output voltage change will be 20 × 100 = 2,000
to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.
voltage with time in response to a perfect step- (d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as mV (or 2 V). Re-arranging the formula for slew
Typical values of output resistance range from less
function input. Hence: possible. rate gives:
than 10 G to around 100 G depending upon the
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
configuration and amount of feedback employed. VOUT VOUT 2V
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible. t= = = 0.133 µs
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit Slew rate = Slew rate 15 V/µs
t
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 161 162 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Table 8.2 Some common examples of integrated circuit operational amplifiers Hz. The effect of applying increasing amounts of
negative feedback (and consequently reducing the
Open-loop gain to a more manageable amount) is that the
Input bias Slew rate bandwidth increases in direct proportion.
Device Type voltage Application
current (V/µs) The frequency response curves in Fig. 8.5 show
gain (dB)
the effect on the bandwidth of making the closed-
AD548 Bipolar 100 min. 0.01 nA 1.8 Instrumentation amplifier loop gains equal to 10,000, 1,000, 100, and 10.
AD711 FET 100 25 pA 20 Wideband amplifier Table 8.3 summarizes these results. You should
CA3140 CMOS 100 5 pA 9 Low-noise wideband amplifier also note that the (gain × bandwidth) product for
this amplifier is 1 × 106 Hz (i.e. 1 MHz).
LF347 FET 110 50 pA 13 Wideband amplifier
We can determine the bandwidth of the amplifier
LM301 Bipolar 88 70 nA 0.4 General-purpose operational amplifier when the closed-loop voltage gain is set to 46 dB Figure 8.6 Operational amplifier with negative
LM348 Bipolar 96 30 nA 0.6 General-purpose operational amplifier by constructing a line and noting the intercept point feedback applied
TL071 FET 106 30 pA 13 Wideband amplifier on the response curve. This shows that the
bandwidth will be 10 kHz. Note that, for this
741 Bipolar 106 80 nA 0.5 General-purpose operational amplifier (b) the open-loop voltage gain (i.e., the ratio of
operational amplifier, the (gain × bandwidth)
product is 2 × 106 Hz (or 2 MHz). VOUT to VIN with no feedback applied) is infinite.
As a consequence of (a) and (b):
Operational amplifier applications Gain and bandwidth (i) the voltage appearing between the inverting and
non-inverting inputs (VIC) will be zero, and
Table 8.3 Corresponding values of voltage gain (ii) the current flowing into the chip (IIC) will be
Table 8.2 shows abbreviated data for some It is important to note that, since the product of and bandwidth for an operational amplifier with a
common types of integrated circuit operational zero (recall that IIC = VIC /RIC and RIC is infinite).
gain and bandwidth is a constant for any particular gain × bandwidth product of 1 × 106 Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law at node A
amplifier together with some typical applications. operational amplifier. Hence, an increase in gain gives:
can only be achieved at the expense of bandwidth, Voltage gain (AV) Bandwidth
and vice versa. IIN = IIC + IF but IIC = 0 thus IIN = IF (1)
Example 8.5 Figure 8.5 shows the relationship between 1 DC to 1 MHz
voltage gain and bandwidth for a typical (this shows that the current in the feedback resistor,
Which of the operational amplifiers in the table 10 DC to 100 kHz R2, is the same as the input current, IIN ).
would be most suitable for each of the following operational amplifier (note that the axes use
logarithmic, rather than linear scales). The open- 100 DC to 10 kHz Applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to loop A
applications: gives:
loop voltage gain (i.e. that obtained with no 1,000 DC to 1 kHz
(a) amplifying the low-level output from a feedback applied) is 100,000 (or 100 dB) and the 10,000 DC to 100 Hz VIN = (IIN × R1) + VIC
piezoelectric vibration sensor bandwidth obtained in this condition is a mere 10
100,000 DC to 10 Hz but VIC = 0 thus VIN = IIN × R1 (2)
(b) a high-gain amplifier that can be used to
faithfully amplify very small signals Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in loop B gives:
(c) a low-frequency amplifier for audio signals. VOUT = *VIC + (IF × R2)
Inverting amplifier with feedback
but VIC = 0 thus VOUT = IF × R2 (3)
Solution
Figure 8.6 shows the circuit of an inverting Combining (1) and (3) gives:
(a) AD548 (this operational amplifier is designed
amplifier with negative feedback applied. For the
for use in instrumentation applications and it offers VOUT = IIN × R2 (4)
sake of our explanation we will assume that the
a very low input offset current which is important
operational amplifier is ‘ideal’. Now consider what The voltage gain of the stage is given by:
when the input is derived from a piezoelectric
happens when a small positive input voltage is
transducer) V OUT
applied. This voltage (VIN) produces a current (IIN) Av = (5)
flowing in the input resistor R1. V IN
(b) CA3140 (this is a low-noise operational
amplifier that also offers high gain and fast slew Since the operational amplifier is ‘ideal’ we will
assume that: Combining (4) and (2) with (5) gives:
rate)
(a) the input resistance (i.e. the resistance that
(c) LM348 or LM741 (both are general purpose I IN × R 2 R 2
appears between the inverting and non-inverting Av = =
operational amplifiers and are ideal for non-critical Figure 8.5 Frequency response curves for an input terminals, RIC) is infinite I IN × R1 R1
applications such as audio amplifiers). operational amplifier
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 163 164 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

To preserve symmetry and minimize offset voltage, base our circuit on a single operational amplifier
a third resistor is often included in series with the configured as an inverting amplifier with capacitors
non-inverting input. The value of this resistor to define the upper and lower cut-off frequencies,
should be equivalent to the parallel combination of as shown in the previous figure.
R1 and R2. Hence: The nominal input resistance is the same as the
R1 × R 2 value for RIN. Thus:
R3 =
R1 + R 2 RIN = 10 kG
From this point onwards (and to help you To determine the value of RF we can make use of
remember the function of the resistors) we shall the formula for mid-band voltage gain:
refer to the input resistance as RIN and the feedback
resistance as RF (instead of the more general and R2
Av =
less meaningful R1 and R2, respectively). Figure 8.9 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and R1
CF, to modify the frequency response of an thus R2 = Av × R1 = 100 × 10 kG = 100kG
operational amplifier
Operational amplifier configurations To determine the value of CIN we will use the
formula for the low-frequency cut-off:
The three basic configurations for operational 1 0.159
f1 = = 0.159
voltage amplifiers, together with the expressions 2 C IN RIN C IN RIN f1 =
for their voltage gain, are shown in Fig. 8.7. Supply CIN RIN
rails have been omitted from these diagrams for where f1 is the lower cut-off frequency in Hz, CIN is
clarity but are assumed to be symmetrical about in Farads and RIN is in ohms. from which:
0V. Provided the upper frequency response it not
0.159 0.159
All of the amplifier circuits described previously limited by the gain × bandwidth product, the upper C IN = =
have used direct coupling and thus have frequency cut-off frequency will be determined by the f1 RIN 250 × 10 × 10 3
response characteristics that extend to d.c. This, of feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback resistance,
course, is undesirable for many applications, RF, such that: hence:
particularly where a wanted a.c. signal may be
superimposed on an unwanted d.c. voltage level or 1 0.159 0.159
f2 = = C IN = = 63 × 10 9 F = 63 nF
when the bandwidth of the amplifier greatly 2 C F RF C F RF 2.5 × 10 6
exceeds that of the signal that it is required to
amplify. In such cases, capacitors of appropriate where f2 is the upper cut-off frequency in Hz, CF is Finally, to determine the value of CF we will use
value may be inserted in series with the input Figure 8.7 The three basic configurations for in Farads and R2 is in ohms. the formula for high-frequency cut-off:
resistor, RIN, and in parallel with the feedback operational voltage amplifiers
resistor, RF, as shown in Fig. 8.8.
0.159
f2 =
The value of the input and feedback capacitors, Example 8.6 C F RF
CIN and CF respectively, are chosen so as to roll-off
the frequency response of the amplifier at the from which:
An inverting operational amplifier is to operate
desired lower and upper cut-off frequencies, according to the following specification: 0.159 0.159
respectively. The effect of these two capacitors on CF = =
Voltage gain = 100 f 2 RIN 15 × 103 × 100 × 103
an operational amplifier’s frequency response is
shown in Fig. 8.9. Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kG
By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz hence:
frequency response of an inverting operational Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
0.159
voltage amplifier may be very easily tailored to suit CF = = 0.106 × 10 9 F = 106 pF
Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification 1.5 × 10 9
a particular set of requirements. using an operational amplifier.
The lower cut-off frequency is determined by the
value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input For most applications the nearest preferred values
Figure 8.8 Adding capacitors to modify the Solution (68 nF for CIN and 100 pF for CF) would be
resistance, RIN. The lower cut-off frequency is
frequency response of an inverting operational To make things a little easier, we can break the perfectly adequate. The complete circuit of the
given by:
amplifier problem down into manageable parts. We shall operational amplifier stage is shown in Fig. 8.10.
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 165 166 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Figure 8.13 A differentiator Figure 8.15 An integrator

Figure 8.10 See Example 8.6. This operational Figure 8.11 A voltage follower
amplifier has a mid-band voltage gain of 10 over
the frequency range 250 Hz to 15 kHz

Operational amplifier circuits

As well as their application as a general-purpose
amplifying device, operational amplifiers have a
number of other uses, including voltage followers,
differentiators, integrators, comparators, and
summing amplifiers. We shall conclude this section
by taking a brief look at each of these applications.

Voltage followers

A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is

Figure 8.14 Typical input and output waveforms Figure 8.16 Typical input and output waveforms
shown in Fig. 8.11. This circuit is essentially an
for a differentiator for an integrator
inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is
fed back to the input. The result is an amplifier that
has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input Integrators Comparators
Figure 8.12 Typical input and output waveforms
resistance and a very high output resistance. This
for a voltage follower
stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for An integrator using an operational amplifier is A comparator using an operational amplifier is
matching a high-impedance circuit to a low- shown in Fig. 8.15. This circuit provides the shown in Fig. 8.17. Since no negative feedback has
impedance circuit. opposite function to that of a differentiator (see been applied, this circuit uses the maximum gain of
Typical input and output waveforms for a earlier) in that its output is equivalent to the area the operational amplifier. The output voltage
voltage follower are shown in Fig. 8.12. Notice remains constant (i.e. if it isn’t changing) the output under the graph of the input function rather than its produced by the operational amplifier will thus rise
how the input and output waveforms are both in- also remains constant. The faster the input voltage rate of change. If the input voltage remains constant to the maximum possible value (equal to the
phase (they rise and fall together) and that they are changes the greater will the output be. In (and is other than 0V) the output voltage will ramp positive supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage
identical in amplitude. mathematics this is equivalent to the differential up or down according to the polarity of the input. present at the non-inverting input exceeds that
function. The longer the input voltage remains at a particular present at the inverting input. Conversely, the
Differentiators Typical input and output waveforms for a value the larger the value of output voltage (of output voltage produced by the operational
differentiator are shown in Fig. 8.14. Notice how either polarity) will be produced. amplifier will fall to the minimum possible value
A differentiator using an operational amplifier is the square wave input is converted to a train of Typical input and output waveforms for an
(equal to the negative supply rail voltage) whenever
shown in Fig. 8.13. A differentiator produces an short duration pulses at the output. Note also that integrator are shown in Fig. 8.16. Notice how the
the voltage present at the inverting input exceeds
square wave input is converted to a wave that has a
output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of the output waveform is inverted because the signal that present at the non-inverting input.
triangular shape. Once again, note that the output
change of its input. This may sound a little complex has been applied to the inverting input of the Typical input and output waveforms for a
waveform is inverted.
but it simply means that, if the input voltage operational amplifier.
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 167

comparator are shown in Fig. 8.18. Notice how the

output is either +15V or –15V depending on the
voltages. However, since the operational amplifier
is connected in inverting mode, the output voltage 9
relative polarity of the two input. A typical is given by:
application for a comparator is that of comparing a
signal voltage with a reference voltage. The output
will go high (or low) in order to signal the result of
VOUT = ((V1 + V2)
Oscillators
the comparison. where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that all
of the resistors used in the circuit have the same This chapter describes circuits that generate sine By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Summing amplifiers value). Typical input and output waveforms for a wave, square wave, and triangular waveforms.
summing amplifier are shown in Fig. 8.20. A These oscillator circuits form the basis of clocks Vin ' = Vin + 0Vout
A summing amplifier using an operational typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input and timing arrangements as well as signal and
signals to produce an output voltage that is the sum function generators. thus
amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.19. This circuit
produces an output that is the sum of its two input of the two. Vin = Vin ' 0Vout

Positive feedback and

Vout = Av × Vin
In Chapter 7, we showed how negative feedback
can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of a where Av is the internal gain of the amplifier.
stage which has a precisely controlled gain. An Hence:
alternative form of feedback, where the output is Av × Vin ' Av × Vin '
Overall gain, G = =
fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input Vin ' 0Vout Vin ' 0 ( Av × Vin ')
(rather than to subtract from it), is known as
positive feedback. Av
Figure 8.17 A comparator Figure 8.19 A summing amplifier Thus, G =
Figure 9.1 shows the block diagram of an 1 0Av
amplifier stage with positive feedback applied.
Note that the amplifier provides a phase shift of Now consider what will happen when the loop
180° and the feedback network provides a further gain, 0Av, approaches unity (i.e., when the loop
180°. Thus the overall phase shift is 0°. The overall gain is just less than 1). The denominator (1 2 0Av)
voltage gain, G, is given by: will become close to zero. This will have the effect
of increasing the overall gain, i.e. the overall gain
Vout with positive feedback applied will be greater than
Overall gain, G =
V in the gain without feedback.

Figure 8.18 Typical input and output waveforms Figure 8.20 Typical input and output waveforms
for a comparator for a summing amplifier Figure 9.1 Amplifier with positive feedback applied
172 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS OSCILLATORS 173

It is worth illustrating this difficult concept using conditions for oscillation are:
some practical figures. Assume that you have an (a) the feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal
amplifier with a gain of 9 and one-tenth of the fed back must arrive back in-phase with the signal
output is fed back to the input (i.e. 0 = 0.1). In this at the input);
case the loop gain (0 × Av) is 0.9. (b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater
With negative feedback applied (see Chapter 7) than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient
the overall voltage gain will be: to overcome the losses associated with any
Av 9 9 9 frequency selective feedback network).
G= = = = = 4.7 Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an
1 + 0 Av 1 + ( 0.1 × 9 ) 1 + 0.9 1.9
amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome the
With positive feedback applied the overall voltage losses of the network that provide positive
gain will be: feedback. Assuming that the amplifier provides
Av
180° phase shift, the frequency of oscillation will
10 10 10 Figure 9.2 Sine wave oscillator based on a three-
G= = = = = 90 be that at which there is 180° phase shift in the
1 0 Av 1 ( 0.1 × 9 ) 1 0.9 0.1
feedback network. stage C–R ladder network Figure 9.3 A Wien bridge network
A number of circuits can be used to provide 180°
Now assume that you have an amplifier with a gain phase shift, one of the simplest being a three-stage
of 10 and, once again, one-tenth of the output is fed C–R ladder network that we shall meet next.
back to the input (i.e. 0 = 0.1). In this example the Alternatively, if the amplifier produces 0° phase Example 9.1 signals will be in-phase). If we connect the network
loop gain (0 × Av) is exactly 1. shift, the circuit will oscillate at the frequency at to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift which has
Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three- sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the Wien
With negative feedback applied (see Chapter 7) which the feedback network produces 0° phase stage ladder network oscillator in which
the overall voltage gain will be: shift. In both cases, the essential point is that the bridge, oscillation will result.
C = 10 nF and R = 10 kL. The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain
Av 10 10 10 feedback should be positive so that the output
G= = = = =5 signal arrives back at the input in such a sense as to oscillation is given by:
1 + 0Av 1 + ( 0.1×10) 1 + 1 2 Solution
reinforce the original signal. C1 R2
Using Av = 1 + +
With positive feedback applied the overall voltage C 2 R1
1
gain will be: Ladder network oscillator f = In most cases, C1 = C2 and R1 = R2, hence the
2K × 6CR minimum amplifier gain will be 3.
Av 10 10 10
G= = = = = A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three- The frequency at which the phase shift will be
1 0Av 1 ( 0.1× 10 ) 1 1 0 gives
stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig. 9.2. zero is given by:
TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter 1
This simple example shows that a loop gain of f= 1
amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing base bias 6.28× 2.45×10×10 9 ×10 ×103 f =
unity (or larger) will result in infinite gain and an potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter 2 K × C1C 2 R1 R 2
amplifier which is unstable. In fact, the amplifier stabilization. from which
will oscillate since any disturbance will be The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder When Rl = R2 and Cl = C2 the frequency at which
amplified and result in an output. 1 104
network (connected between collector and base) is f = = = 647 Hz the phase shift will be zero will be given by:
Clearly, as far as an amplifier is concerned, 180° at the frequency of oscillation. The transistor 6.28 × 2.45 ×10 4
15.386
positive feedback may have an undesirable effect— provides the other 180° phase shift in order to 1 1
f = =
instead of reducing the overall gain the effect is realize an overall phase shift of 360° or 0° (note 2K × C 2 R 2 2KCR
that of reinforcing any signal present and the output that these are the same).
can build up into continuous oscillation if the loop The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown Wien bridge oscillator where R = Rl = R2 and C = Cl = C2.
gain is 1 or greater. To put this another way, in Fig. 9.2 is given by:
oscillator circuits can simply be thought of as An alternative approach to providing the phase
amplifiers that generate an output signal without 1
f = shift required is the use of a Wien bridge network Example 9.2
the need for an input! 2K × 6CR (Fig. 9.3). Like the C–R ladder, this network
provides a phase shift which varies with frequency. Figure 9.4 shows the circuit of a Wien bridge
The input signal is applied to A and B while the oscillator based on an operational amplifier. If Cl =
The loss associated with the ladder network is 29,
C2 = 100 nF, determine the output frequencies
Conditions for oscillation thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at least 29 output is taken from C and D. At one particular
frequency, the phase shift produced by the network produced by this arrangement (a) when Rl = R2 =
in order for the circuit to oscillate. In practice this
will be exactly zero (i.e. the input and output 1 kL and (b) when Rl = R2 = 6 kL.
From the foregoing we can deduce that the is easily achieved with a single transistor.
174 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS OSCILLATORS 175

Multivibrators

There are many occasions when we require a

square wave output from an oscillator rather than a
sine wave output. Multivibrators are a family of
oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms
consisting of one or more rectangular pulses. The
term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact
that this type of waveform is rich in harmonics (i.e.
‘multiple vibrations’). Figure 9.6 Astable multivibrator using BJTs
Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive)
feedback; the active devices present within the
oscillator circuit being operated as switches, being
alternately cut off and driven into saturation.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
(a) astable multivibrators that provide a
Figure 9.4 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien continuous train of pulses (these are sometimes
bridge network (see Example 9.2) also referred to as free-running multivibrators) Figure 9.8 Waveforms for the BJT multivibrator
shown in Fig. 9.6
(b) monostable multivibrators that produce a
single output pulse (they have one stable state and Figure 9.7 Circuit of Fig. 9.6 redrawn to show
Solution are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’) two common-emitter amplifier stages with positive
and TR1’s base voltage will rise exponentially
(a) When R1 = R2 = 1 kL (c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable feedback
from 2VCC towards +VCC. However, TR1’s base
1 states and require a trigger pulse or control signal voltage will not rise much above 0 V because, as
f = to change from one state to another. soon as it reaches +0.7 V (sufficient to cause base
2K CR The astable multivibrator current to flow), TR1 will begin to conduct. As
TR1 begins to turn on, its collector voltage will
where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C2. Figure 9.6 shows a classic form of astable rapidly fall from +VCC 0 V. This fall in voltage is
Thus multivibrator based on two transistors. Figure 9.7 transferred to the base of TR2 via C1 and, as a
shows how this circuit can be redrawn in an consequence, TR2 will turn off. C1 will then
1 arrangement that more closely resembles a two- charge via R3 and TR2’s base voltage will rise
f = stage common-emitter amplifier with its output
6.28 × 100 × 10 9 × 1× 103 exponentially from 2VCC towards +VCC. As before,
connected back to its input. In Fig. 9.5, the values TR2’s base voltage will not rise much above 0 V
104 of the base resistors, R3 and R4, axe such that the because, as soon as it reaches +0.7 V (sufficient to
f = = 1.59 kHz sufficient base current will be available to cause base current to flow), TR2 will start to
6.28
completely saturate the respective transistor. The conduct. The cycle is then repeated indefinitely.
(b) When R1 = R1 = 6 kL values of the collector load resistors, R1 and R2, The time for which the collector voltage of TR2
are very much smaller than R3 and R4. When is low and TRl is high (T1) will be determined by
1 power is first applied to the circuit, assume that the time constant, R4 × C1. Similarly, the time for
f =
2K CR TR2 saturates before TR1 when the power is first which the collector voltage of TR1 is low and TR2
applied (in practice one transistor would always is high (T2) will be determined by the time
where R = R1 = R1 and C = C1 = C2. saturate before the other due to variations in constant, R3 × C1.
component tolerances and transistor parameters). The following approximate relationships apply:
Thus As TR2 saturates, its collector voltage will fall
rapidly from +VCC to 0 V. This drop in voltage will T1 = 0.7 C2 R4 and T2 = 0.7 C1 R3
1
f= be transferred to the base of TR1 via C1. This Since one complete cycle of the output occurs in a
6.28×100 ×10 9 × 6 ×103 Figure 9.5 This high-speed bistable multivibrator negative-going voltage will ensure that TR1 is time, T = T1 + T2, the periodic time of the output is
uses two general-purpose silicon transistors and initially placed in the non-conducting state. As long given by:
4
10 works at frequencies of up to 1 MHz triggered from as TR1 remains cut off, TR2 will continue to be
f = = 265 Hz an external signal saturated. During this time, C1 will charge via R4 T = 0.7 (C2 R4 + C1 R3)
37.68
176 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS OSCILLATORS 177

Finally, we often require a symmetrical square Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the
wave output where T1 = T2 . To obtain such an output waveform produced by the astable
output, we should make R3 = R4 and C1 = C1, in oscillator is given by:
which case the periodic time of the output will be
given by: R2
T = 2CR ln 1 + 2
R1
T = 1.4 C R
where C = C1 = C2 and R = R3 = R4. Waveforms
for the astable oscillator are shown in Fig. 9.8.
Crystal controlled oscillators

Example 9.3 Figure 9.9 Astable oscillator using operational A requirement of some oscillators is that they
amplifiers accurately maintain an exact frequency of
The astable multivibrator in Fig. 9.6 is required to Figure 9.10 Single-stage astable oscillator using an oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can be
produce a square wave output at 1 kHz. Determine operational amplifier used as the frequency determining element. The
suitable values for R3 and R4 if C1 and C2 are both quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a
10 nF. Eventually, the output voltage will have fallen to a
hermetically sealed enclosure, see Fig. 9.11)
value that causes the polarity of the voltage at the
frequency that can be made adjustable by replacing vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied
Solution non-inverting input of IC2 to change from positive
R with a variable or preset resistor. across its faces (this phenomenon is known as the
to negative. At this point, the output of IC2 will
Assume that C is initially uncharged and the piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation
Since a square wave is required and C1 and C2 rapidly fall to 2VCC. Again, this voltage will be
voltage at the inverting input is slightly less than is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical
have identical values, R3 must be made equal to passed, via R, to IC1. Capacitor, C, will then start
the voltage at the non-inverting input. The output size.
R4. Now: to charge in the other direction and the output
voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at Most quartz crystals can be expected to stabilize
voltage of IC1 will begin to rise.
1 1 the inverting input will begin to rise exponentially the frequency of oscillation of a circuit to within a
T= = = 1× 10 3
s Some time later, the output voltage will have
f 1× 103 as capacitor C charges through R. few parts in a million. Crystals can be
risen to a value that causes the polarity of the non-
Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will manufactured for operation in fundamental mode
inverting input of IC2 to revert to its original
Re-arranging T = 1.4CR to make R the subject have reached a value that causes the voltage at the over a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to
(positive) state and the cycle will continue
gives: inverting input to exceed that present at the non- around 20 MHz and for overtone operation from
indefinitely.
inverting input. At this point, the output voltage 20 MHz to well over 100 MHz. Figure 9.12 shows
T 1×10 3 1×106 The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum
R= = = =0.071×106 will rapidly fall to 2VCC. Capacitor, C, will then a simple crystal oscillator circuit in which the
positive value for Vout) will be given by:
1.4C 1.4 ×10 ×10 9
14 start to charge in the other direction and the voltage crystal provides feedback from the drain to the
R1 at the inverting input will begin to fall source of a junction gate FET.
VUT = VCC ×
hence R2 exponentially.
Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will
R = 71×103 = 71 k The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum have reached a value that causes the voltage at the
negative value for Vout) will be given by: inverting input to be less than that present at the
non-inverting input. At this point, the output
R1
Other forms of astable oscillator VLT = VCC × voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and the
R2 cycle will continue indefinitely.
Figure 9.9 shows the circuit diagram of an The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum
alternative form of astable oscillator which positive value for the voltage at the inverting input)
produces a triangular output waveform. Single-stage astable oscillator will be given by:
Operational amplifier IC1 forms an integrating R2
stage while IC2 is connected with positive A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a VUT = VCC ×
feedback to ensure that oscillation takes place. square wave output can be built using just one R1 + R2
Assume that the output from IC2 is initially at, operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 9.10. The The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum
or near, +VCC and capacitor, C, is uncharged. The circuit employs positive feedback with the output negative value for the voltage at the inverting
voltage at the output of IC2 will be passed, via R, fed back to the non-inverting input via the potential input) will be given by:
to IC1. Capacitor, C, will start to charge and the divider formed by R1 and R2. This circuit can Figure 9.11 A quartz crystal (this crystal is cut to
output voltage of IC1 will begin to fall. make a very simple square wave source with a R2 be resonant at 4 MHz and is supplied in an HC18
VLT = VCC × wire-ended package)
R1+ R2