116 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

6 circuit). The output of the rectifier is then applied

to a high-value reservoir capacitor. This capacitor
stores a considerable amount of charge and is being
constantly topped-up by the rectifier arrangement.
Power supplies The capacitor also helps to smooth out the voltage
pulses produced by the rectifier. Finally, a
stabilizing circuit (often based on a series
transistor regulator and a zener diode voltage Figure 6.4 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit
reference) provides a constant output voltage. We
This chapter deals with the unsung hero of most shall now examine each stage of this arrangement
electronic systems, the power supply. Nearly all in turn, building up to some complete power supply
electronic circuits require a source of well regulated circuits at the end of the chapter.
d.c. at voltages of typically between 5 V and 30 V.
In some cases, this supply can be derived directly
from batteries (e.g. 6 V, 9 V, 12 V) but in many
Rectifiers
others it is desirable to make use of a standard a.c.
mains outlet. This chapter explains how rectifier
and smoothing circuits operate and how power Semiconductor diodes (see Chapter 5) are
supply output voltages can be closely regulated. commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.)
The chapter concludes with a brief description of to direct current (d.c), in which case they are
some practical power supply circuits. referred to as rectifiers. The simplest form of
The block diagram of a d.c. power supply is rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and,
shown in Fig. 6.1. Since the mains input is at a since it operates on only either positive or negative
Figure 6.3 A simple d.c. power supply half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a half-
relatively high voltage, a step-down transformer of
appropriate turns ratio is used to convert this to a wave rectifier.
low voltage. The a.c. output from the transformer remains relatively constant in spite of variations in Figure 6.4 shows a simple half-wave rectifier
secondary is then rectified using conventional both load current and incoming mains voltage. circuit. Mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to
silicon rectifier diodes (see Chapter 5) to produce Figure 6.2 shows how some of the electronic the primary of a step-down transformer (T1). The
secondary of T1 steps down the 240 V r.m.s. to Figure 6.5 (a) Half-wave rectifier circuit with D1
an unsmoothed (sometimes referred to as pulsating components that we have already met can be used
12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be conducting (positive-going half-cycles of
d.c.) output. This is then smoothed and filtered in the realization of the block diagram in Fig. 6.1.
240/12 or 20:1). Diode D1 will only allow the secondary voltage) (b) half-wave rectifier with D1
before being applied to a circuit which will The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a
current to flow in the direction shown (i.e. from not conducting (negative-going half-cycles of
regulate (or stabilize) the output voltage so that it rectifier arrangement (often based on a bridge
cathode to anode). D1 will be forward biased secondary voltage)
during each positive half-cycle (relative to
common) and will effectively behave like a closed
switch. When the circuit current tries to flow in the when selecting a diode for a particular application.
opposite direction, the voltage bias across the diode Assuming that the secondary of T1 provides 12 V
will be reversed, causing the diode to act like an r.m.s., the peak voltage output from the
open switch (see Figs 6.5(a) and 6.5(b), transformer’s secondary winding will be given by:
respectively). Vpk = 1.414 × Vr.m.s. = 1.414 × 12 V = 16.97 V
The switching action of D1 results in a pulsating
Figure 6.1 Block diagram of a d.c. power supply output voltage which is developed across the load The peak voltage applied to D1 will thus be
resistor (RL). Since the mains supply is at 50 Hz, approximately 17 V. The negative half-cycles are
the pulses of voltage developed across RL will also blocked by D1 and thus only the positive half-
be at 50 Hz even if only half the a.c. cycle is cycles appear across RL. Note, however, that the
present. During the positive half-cycle, the diode actual peak voltage across RL will be the 17 V
will drop the 0.6 V to 0.7 V forward threshold positive peak being supplied from the secondary on
voltage normally associated with silicon diodes. T1, minus the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage
However, during the negative half-cycle the peak dropped by D1. In other words, positive half-cycle
a.c. voltage will be dropped across D1 when it is pulses having a peak amplitude of 16.3 V will
reverse biased. This is an important consideration appear across RL.
Figure 6.2 Block diagram of a d.c. power supply showing principal components
 POWER SUPPLIES 117 118 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Example 6.1 and hence C1 takes an appreciable time to that of simply increasing the discharge time The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit
discharge. During this time, D1 will be reverse constant. This can be achieved either by increasing (i.e. appearing across C1) will be given by:
A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is biased and will thus be held in its non-conducting the value of C1 or by increasing the resistance
connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply. If the state. As a consequence, the only discharge path for value of RL. In practice, however, the latter is not XC 3.18
secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, Vripple = 1 × = 1×
C1 is through RL. really an option because RL is the effective R2 + X C2 100 2 + 3.18 2
determine the peak voltage that will appear across a C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It resistance of the circuit being supplied and we
load. stores charge during the positive half-cycles of don’t usually have the ability to change it! From which:
secondary voltage and releases it during the Increasing the value of C1 is a more practical
Solution negative half-cycles. The circuit of Fig. 6.5 is thus alternative and very large capacitor values (often in V = 0.032 V = 32 mV
The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by: able to maintain a reasonably constant output excess of 4,700 µF) are typical.
voltage across RL. Even so, C1 will discharge by a Figure 6.8 shows a further refinement of the
VS = VP / 11 = 220 / 44 = 5 V small amount during the negative half-cycle simple power supply circuit. This circuit employs
periods from the transformer secondary. two additional components, R1 and C1, which act Improved ripple filters
The peak voltage developed after rectification will as a filter to remove the ripple. The value of C1 is
be given by: chosen so that the component exhibits a negligible A further improvement can be achieved by using an
VPK = 1.414 × 5 V = 7.07 V reactance at the ripple frequency (50 Hz for a half- inductor, L1, instead of a resistor in the smoothing
wave rectifier or 100 Hz for a full-wave rectifier— circuit. This circuit also offers the advantage that
Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a see later). In effect, R1 and C1 act like a potential the minimum d.c. voltage is dropped across the
forward voltage drop of 0.6 V, the actual peak divider. The amount of ripple is reduced by an inductor (in the circuit of Fig. 6.7, the d.c. output
voltage dropped across the load will be: approximate factor equal to: voltage is reduced by an amount equal to the
VL = 7.07 V B 0.6 V = 6.47 V XC voltage drop across R1).
Figure 6.9 shows the circuit of a half-wave
Figure 6.6 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit R 2 + X C2 power supply with an L–C smoothing circuit. At
with reservoir capacitor the ripple frequency, L1 exhibits a high value of
Reservoir and smoothing circuits inductive reactance while C1 exhibits a low value
of capacitive reactance. The combined effect is that
Figure 6.6 shows a considerable improvement to of an attenuator which greatly reduces the
the circuit of Fig. 6.3. The capacitor, C1, has been amplitude of the ripple while having a negligible
added to ensure that the output voltage remains at, effect on the direct voltage.
or near, the peak voltage even when the diode is not
conducting. When the primary voltage is first
applied to T1, the first positive half-cycle output
from the secondary will charge C1 to the peak Figure 6.8 Half-wave rectifier circuit with R–C
value seen across RL. Hence C1 charges to 16.3 V smoothing filter
at the peak of the positive half-cycle. Because C1
and RL are in parallel, the voltage across RL will be
the same as that across C1. Example 6.2
The time required for C1 to charge to the
maximum (peak) level is determined by the The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains
charging circuit time constant (the series resistance operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 =
multiplied by the capacitance value). In this circuit, Figure 6.7 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit 100 G and C2 = 1,000 µF. If 1 V of ripple appears Figure 6.9 Half-wave rectifier circuit with L–C
the series resistance comprises the secondary with reservoir capacitor at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of smoothing filter
winding resistance together with the forward ripple appearing at the output.
resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance
of the wiring and connections. Hence C1 charges Figure 6.7 shows the secondary voltage waveform Solution Example 6.3
very rapidly as soon as D1 starts to conduct. together with the voltage developed across RL with
First we must determine the reactance of the The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains
The time required for C1 to discharge is, in and without C1 present. This gives rise to a small
capacitor, C1, at the ripple frequency (50 Hz): operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of
contrast, very much greater. The discharge time variation in the d.c. output voltage (known as
ripple). Since ripple is undesirable we must take L1 = 10 H and C2 = 1,000 µF. If 1 V of ripple
constant is determined by the capacitance value and 1 1 1,000
additional precautions to reduce it. One obvious XC = = = = 3.18 appears at the input of the circuit, determine the
the load resistance, RL. In practice, RL is very much 2 fC 6.28 × 50 ×1,000 ×10 6 314
method of reducing the amplitude of the ripple is amount of ripple appearing at the output.
larger than the resistance of the secondary circuit
 POWER SUPPLIES 119 120 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Solution positive with respect to point C. In this condition

D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive
Once again, the reactance of the capacitor, C1, is with respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow
3.18 G (see Example 6.2). The reactance of L1 at conduction (its anode will be negative with respect
50 Hz can be calculated from: to its cathode). Thus D1 alone conducts on positive
XL = 2I f L = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 10 = 3,140 G half-cycles.
On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive
The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit with respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be
(i.e. appearing across C1) will be approximately positive with respect to point A. In this condition
given by: D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive
with respect to its cathode) while D1 will not allow
XC 3.18 conduction (its anode will be negative with respect
V = 1× = 1× 0.001 V
XC + XL 3140 + 3.18 to its cathode). Thus D2 alone conducts on negative Figure 6.12 Bi-phase rectifier with reservoir
Figure 6.10 Bi-phase rectifier circuit half-cycles. capacitor
Hence the ripple produced by this arrangement Figure 6.11 shows the bi-phase rectifier circuit
(with 1 V of 50 Hz a.c. superimposed on the with the diodes replaced by switches. In Fig. 6.11
rectified input) will be a mere 1 mV. It is worth (a) D1 is shown conducting on a positive half-cycle
comparing this value with that obtained from the secondary winding resistance together with the
while in Fig. 6.11(b) D2 is shown conducting. The forward resistance of the diode and the (minimal)
previous example! result is that current is routed through the load in
Finally, it is important to note that the amount of resistance of the wiring and connections. Hence C1
the same direction on successive half-cycles. charges very rapidly as soon as either D1 or D2
ripple present at the output of a power supply will Furthermore, this current is derived alternately
increase when the supply is loaded. starts to conduct. The time required for C1 to
from the two secondary windings. discharge is, in contrast, very much greater. The
As with the half-wave rectifier, the switching discharge time contrast is determined by the
action of the two diodes results in a pulsating capacitance value and the load resistance, RL. In
Full-wave rectifiers output voltage being developed across the load practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance
resistor (RL). However, unlike the half-wave circuit of the secondary circuit and hence C1 takes an
Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is the pulses of voltage developed across RL will appreciable time to discharge. During this time, D1
relatively inefficient as conduction takes place only occur at a frequency of 100 Hz (not 50 Hz). This and D2 will be reverse biased and held in a non-
on alternate half-cycles. A better rectifier doubling of the ripple frequency allows us to use conducting state. As a consequence, the only
arrangement would make use of both positive and smaller values of reservoir and smoothing capacitor discharge path for C1 is through RL. Figure 6.13
negative half-cycles. These full-wave rectifier to obtain the same degree of ripple reduction (recall shows voltage waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier,
circuits offer a considerable improvement over that the reactance of a capacitor is reduced as with and without C1 present. Note that the ripple
their half-wave counterparts. They are not only frequency increases). frequency (100 Hz) is twice that of the half-wave
more efficient but are significantly less demanding As before, the peak voltage produced by each of circuit shown previously in Fig. 6.7.
in terms of the reservoir and smoothing the secondary windings will be approximately 17 V
components. There are two basic forms of full- and the peak voltage across RL will be 16.3 V (i.e.
wave rectifier; the bi-phase type and the bridge 17 V less the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage
rectifier type. dropped by the diodes).
Figure 6.12 shows how a reservoir capacitor
(C1) can be added to ensure that the output voltage
Bi-phase rectifier circuits remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the
diodes are not conducting. This component
operates in exactly the same way as for the half-
Figure 6.10 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier wave circuit, i.e. it charges to approximately 16.3 V
circuit. Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the at the peak of the positive half-cycle and holds the
primary of step-down transformer (T1) which has voltage at this level when the diodes are in their
two identical secondary windings, each providing non-conducting states. The time required for C1 to
12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus be Figure 6.11 (a) Bi-phase rectifier with D1
conducting and D2 non-conducting (b) bi-phase charge to the maximum (peak) level is determined
240/12 or 20:1 for each secondary winding). by the charging circuit time constant (the series
On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive rectifier with D2 conducting and D1 non-
conducting resistance multiplied by the capacitance value). In
with respect to point B. Similarly, point B will be this circuit, the series resistance comprises the Figure 6.13 Waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier
 POWER SUPPLIES 121 122 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Bridge rectifier circuits

An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is

that of using a four-diode bridge rectifier (see Fig.
6.14) in which opposite pairs of diode conduct on
alternate half-cycles. This arrangement avoids the
need to have two separate secondary windings.

Figure 6.15 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit Figure 6.19 Bridge rectifier with reservoir
Figure 6.17 Bridge rectifier with reservoir
capacitor capacitor

where VIN is the unregulated input voltage. Thus

the maximum value for RS can be calculated from:

VIN
RS max. = RL × 1
VIN
Figure 6.14 Four diodes connected as a bridge
The power dissipated in the zener diode, will be
given by PZ = IZ × VZ hence the minimum value for
RS can be determined from the off-load condition
A full-wave bridge rectifier arrangement is shown
when:
in Fig. 6.15. Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the
primary of a step-down transformer (Tl). The VIN VZ V VZ (V VZ ) × VZ
secondary winding provides 12 V r.m.s. RS min. = = IN = IN
IZ PZ max . PZ max .
(approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio of
20:1, as before. On positive half-cycles, point A Figure 6.18 Waveforms for the bridge rectifier VZ
will be positive with respect to point B. In this
Thus:
condition Dl and D2 will allow conduction while
D3 and D4 will not allow conduction. Conversely, VINVZ VZ 2
on negative half-cycles, point B will be positive RS min. =
Figure 6.16 (a) Bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 Voltage regulators PZ max .
with respect to point A. In this condition D3 and conducting, D3 and D4 non-conducting (b) bridge
D4 will allow conduction while Dl and D2 will not rectifier with D1 and D2 non-conducting, D3 and
A simple voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 6.19. RS where PZ max. is the maximum rated power
allow conduction. D4 conducting
is included to limit the zener current to a safe value dissipation for the zener diode.
Figure 6.16 shows the bridge rectifier circuit
with the diodes replaced by four switches. In when the load is disconnected. When a load (RL) is
Fig. 6.16(a) Dl and D2 are conducting on a positive connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as current
the bi-phase circuit, i.e. it charges to approximately is diverted into the load resistance (it is usual to Example 6.4
half-cycle while in Fig. 6.16(b) D3 and D4 are
conducting. Once again, the result is that current is 16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle and allow a minimum current of 2 mA to 5 mA in order A 5V zener diode has a maximum rated power
routed through the load in the same direction on holds the voltage at this level when the diodes are to ensure that the diode regulates). The output dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in
successive half-cycles. As with the bi-phase in their non-conducting states. This component voltage (VZ) will remain at the zener voltage until a simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V
rectifier, the switching action of the two diodes operates in exactly the same way as for the bi-phase regulation fails at the point at which the potential to a load having a resistance of 400 G, determine a
results in a pulsating output voltage being circuit and the secondary and rectified output divider formed by RS and RL produces a lower suitable value of series resistor for operation in
developed across the load resistor (RL). Once again, waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.18. Once again note output voltage that is less than VZ. The ratio of RS conjunction with a supply of 9 V.
the peak output voltage is approximately 16.3 V that the ripple frequency is twice that of the to RL is thus important. At the point at which the
(i.e. 17 V less the 0.7 V forward threshold voltage). incoming a.c. supply. circuit just begins to fail to regulate:
Solution
Figure 6.16 shows how a reservoir capacitor Finally, R–C and L–C ripple filters can be added
RL
(C1) can be added to maintain the output voltage to bi-phase and bridge rectifier circuits in exactly VZ = VIN × We shall use an arrangement similar to that shown
when the diodes are not conducting. This the same way as those shown for the half-wave RL + RS in Fig. 6.19. First we should determine the
component operates in exactly the same way as for rectifier arrangement (see Figs 6.8 and 6.9). maximum value for the series resistor, RS:
 POWER SUPPLIES 123 124 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

VIN values of regulation of 5% to 10%. More

RS max. = RL × 1 sophisticated circuits based on discrete components
VIN
produce values of between 1% and 5% and
thus: integrated circuit regulators often provide values of
1% or less.
9
RS max. = 400 × 1 = 400 × (1.8 1) = 320
5
Example 6.5 Figure 6.20 Simple d.c. power supply with shunt
Now we need to determine the minimum value for zener regulated output
the series resistor, RS: The following data was obtained during a test
carried out on a d.c. power supply:
VINVZ VZ 2
RS min. = (i) Load test
PZ max .
Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V
thus: Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V

RS min. =
( 9 × 5) 52 45 25 (ii) Regulation test
= = 40
0.5 0.5 Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V Figure 6.21 Improved regulated d.c. power supply
Output voltage (mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V with series-pass transistor
Hence a suitable value for RS would be 150 G
Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of Figure 6.24 This four-diode bridge rectifier
(roughly mid-way between the two extremes).
the power supply and (b) the regulation of the arrangement is part of a high-voltage d.c. supply.
power supply. Each BY253 diode is rated for a reverse repetitive
maximum voltage (VRRM) of 600 V, and a
Output resistance and voltage regulation
Solution maximum forward current, (IF max.) of 3 A
In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would The output resistance can be determined from the
remain constant regardless of the current taken by load test data:
the load. In practice, however, the output voltage
falls as the load current increases. To account for change in output voltage 12 11.5 Figure 6.22 Variable d.c. power supply capable of delivering an output current of up to
this fact, we say that the power supply has internal Rout = = = 0.25 500 mA (note that TR1 should be fitted with a
change in output current 2 0 small heatsink to conduct away any heat produced).
resistance (ideally this should be zero). This
internal resistance appears at the output of the Figure 6.22 shows a variable power supply. The
The regulation can be determined from the base voltage to the series-pass transistor is derived
supply and is defined as the change in output regulation test data:
voltage divided by the corresponding change in from a potentiometer connected across the zener
output current. Hence: change in output voltage diode, D5. Hence the base voltage is variable from
Regulation = × 100% 0 V to 13 V. The transistor requires a substantial
change in line (input) voltage
change in output voltage Vout heatsink (note that TRl’s dissipation increases as
Rout = = thus
change in output current I out the output voltage is reduced).
Figure 6.23 Power supply with three-terminal IC Finally, Fig. 6.23 shows a d.c. power supply
12 1.9 0.1 voltage regulator
Regulation = × 100% = ×100% = 0.5% based on a fixed-voltage three-terminal
where MIout represents a small change in output 220 200 20
(load) current and MVout represents a corresponding integrated circuit voltage regulator. These
small change in output voltage. devices are available in standard voltage and
The regulation of a power supply is given by the Figure 6.21 shows an improved power supply in current ratings (e.g. 5 V, 12 V, 15 V at 1 A, 2 A
relationship: Practical power supply circuits which a transistor is used to provide current gain and 5 A) and they provide excellent performance in
and minimize the power dissipated in the zener terms of output resistance, ripple rejection and
change in output voltage diode (TR1 is sometimes referred to as a series- voltage regulation.
Regulation = × 100% Figure 6.20 shows a simple power supply circuit
change in line (input) voltage pass transistor). The zener diode, D5, is rated at In addition, such devices usually incorporate
capable of delivering an output current of up to
13 V and the output voltage will be approximately overcurrent protection and can withstand a direct
250 mA. The circuit uses a full-wave bridge
Ideally, the value of regulation should be very 0.7 V less than this (i.e. 13 V minus the base- short-circuit placed across their output terminals.
rectifier arrangement (Dl to D4) and a simple C–R
small. Simple shunt zener diode regulators of the emitter voltage drop associated with TR1). Hence This is an essential feature in many practical
filter. The output voltage is regulated by the shunt-
type shown in Fig. 6.19 are capable of producing the output voltage is about 12.3 V. The circuit is applications!
connected 12 V zener diode.
 POWER SUPPLIES 125 126 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Voltage multipliers

By adding a second diode and capacitor, we can

increase the output of the simple half-wave rectifier
that we met earlier. A voltage doubler using this
technique is shown in Fig. 6.25. In this arrangement
C1 will charge to the positive peak secondary
voltage whilst C2 will charge to the negative peak
secondary voltage. Since the output is taken from Figure 6.29 Step-down switching regulator using
C1 and C2 connected in series the resulting output a series switching transistor
voltage is twice that produced by one diode alone.
The voltage doubler can be extended to produce Figure 6.25 A voltage doubler
higher voltages using the cascade arrangement
will be equal to BVout (less the small forward
shown in Fig. 6.26. Here C1 charges to the positive
voltage drop of the switching diode, D). The
peak secondary voltage, whilst C2 and C3 charge to
average current through the inductor, IL , is equal to
twice the positive peak secondary voltage. The
the load current, Iout. Note that a small amount of
result is that the output voltage is the sum of the
ripple voltage appears superimposed on the steady
voltages across C1 and C3 which is three times the
Figure 6.27 Principle of the switched mode power output voltage, Vout. This ripple voltage can be
voltage that would be produced by a single diode.
supply reduced by using a relatively large value for the
The ladder arrangement shown in Fig. 6.25 can be
capacitor, C.
easily extended to provide even higher voltages but
In order to control the voltage delivered to the
the efficiency of the circuit becomes increasingly
load, Vout, it is simply necessary to adjust the ratio
impaired and high order voltage multipliers of this
of on to off time of the switch. A larger ratio of
type are only suitable for providing relatively small
‘on’ to ‘off’ time (i.e. a larger duty cycle or mark
currents.
to space ratio) produces a greater output voltage,
and vice versa.
In a practical switched mode power supply, the
Switched mode power supplies witch, S1, is replaced by a semiconductor switching
Figure 6.26 A voltage tripler device (i.e. a bipolar switching transistor or a
Power supplies can be divided into two principal MOSFET device). The switching device must have
categories, linear and non-linear types. Linear a low ‘on’ resistance and a high ‘off’ resistance and
power supplies make use of conventional analogue must be capable of switching from the ‘on’ state to
control techniques—the regulating device operates The disadvantages of SMPS are: the ‘off’ state in a very short time.
through a continuous range of current and voltage • relatively complex circuitry Regardless of whether it is a bipolar transistor or
according to the input and load conditions • appreciable noise generated (resulting from Figure 6.28 Waveforms for the switched mode a MOSFET, the switching device is controlled by a
prevailing at the time. Non-linear power supplies, the high switching frequency switching power supply shown in Fig. 6.27 train of rectangular pulses applied to its base or
on the other hand, use digital techniques where the action). gate terminal. The output voltage can be controlled
regulating device is switched rapidly ‘on’ and ‘off’ Fortunately, the principle of the basic step-down by varying the width of the pulses in this train. In a
in order to control the mean current and voltage type switched mode regulator is quite induced e.m.f. is such that it opposes the original practical switched mode power supply, a closed-
delivered to the load. These non-linear power straightforward. Take a look at the circuit diagram potential and will cause current to continue to flow loop feedback path is employed in which the output
supplies are commonly referred to as switched shown in Fig. 6.27. With S1 closed, the switching in the load (i.e. clockwise around the circuit). In voltage is sensed and fed back to the control input
mode power supplies or just SMPS. Note that diode, D, will be reverse biased and will thus be in this condition, the switching diode, D, will become of a pulse generator. The result is pulse width
SMPS can be used to step-up (boost) or step-down a non-conducting state. Current will flow through forward biased, completing the circuit in order to modulation (PWM) of the pulse train to the
(buck) the input voltage. the inductor, L, charging the capacitor, C, and provide a return path for the current. switching device. This pulse width modulation can
Compared with their conventional linear delivering current to the load, RL. Waveforms for the circuit of Fig. 6.27 are shown be achieved using a handful of discrete components
counterparts, the advantages of SMPS are: Current flowing in the inductor, IL, produces a in Fig. 6.28. The inductor voltage, VL, is alternately or, more usually, is based on a dedicated switched
• ability to cope with a very wide input magnetic flux in its core. When S1 is subsequently positive and negative. When S1 is closed, the mode controller chip.
voltage range opened, the magnetic flux within the inductor voltage dropped across the inductor (from left to The job of controlling a switched mode power
• very high efficiency (typically 80%, or more) rapidly collapses and an e.m.f. is generated across right in the diagram) will be equal to +(Vin B Vout). supply is an ideal task for an integrated circuit and
• compact size and light weight the terminals of the inductor. The polarity of the When S1 is open, the voltage across the inductor Fig. 6.29 shows the internal arrangement of a
 POWER SUPPLIES 127 128 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

typical example, the LM78S40. This device Table 6.1 Table of results for the simple zener
contains two operational amplifiers (IC1 and IC2) voltage regulator
designed to work as comparators, and a two-stage
Darlington transistor switch comprising an emitter- Load current Output voltage
follower driver, Q1, and output switch, Q2. The (mA) (V)
LM78S40 is supplied in a 16-pin dual-in-line (DIL)
10
package.
The LM78S40 can be configured to provide step- 20
up (boost), step-down (buck), and inverting 30
operation. The frequency of the internal current
controlled oscillator is set by the value of capacitor 40
connected to pin-12. Oscillator frequencies of 50
between 100 Hz and 100 kHz are possible but most
60
practical applications operate at frequencies
between 20 kHz and 50 kHz. The oscillator duty 70
cycle is internally set to 6:1 but can be varied by Figure 6.32 Simple zener diode voltage regulator 80
means of the current sensing circuit which normally Figure 6.31 A switched mode power supply
senses the current in an external resistor connected 90
between pins-12 and 13. 100
An internal band-gap voltage reference
provides a stable voltage reference of 1.3 V at pin- Practical investigation
8. The internal reference voltage source is capable Table 6.2 Table of results for the transistor
of providing a current of up to 10 mA drawn from Objective voltage regulator
pin-8. The output transistor, Q2, is capable of
To investigate the operation of simple voltage
carrying a peak current of up to 1.5 A and has a Load current Output voltage
regulators. (mA) (V)
maximum collector-emitter voltage rating of 40 V.
The internal power switching diode, D1, is 25
Components and test equipment
accessible between pins-1 and 2 and this has
similar ratings to Q2. Both D1 and Q2 have Breadboard, digital or analogue meters with d.c. 50
switching times of between 300 and 500 ns. IC1 is voltage and current ranges, 9 V d.c. power supply 75
used to compare the 1.3 V voltage reference (pin- (or battery), 3.9 V zener diode (e.g. BZX85 or
10 connected to pin-8) with a proportion of the 100
BZY88), NPN TO5 transistor (e.g. 2N3053 or
output (derived from a simple two-resistor potential BFY50), 48°C/W TO5 clip-on heatsink, 220 G 125
divider). 0.3W resistor, 15 G 0.3W resistor, 500 G and 1 kG 150
wirewound variable resistors, connecting wire, Figure 6.33 Transistor voltage regulator
test leads, . 175
200
Procedure
225
Connect the simple zener diode shunt regulator Measurements and calculations
250
shown in Fig. 6.32. Set the variable resistor to
For each circuit, record your results in a table
produce a load current (IL) of 10 mA then measure
showing corresponding values of IL and VL (see
and record the output voltage produced across the
Tables 6.1 and 6.2). Conclusion
load, VL. Repeat for load currents from 20 mA to
Plot graphs showing VL plotted against IL for each
100 mA in 10 mA steps. Comment on the shape of each graph. Is this what
circuit (see Figures 6.34 and 6.35). By constructing
Connect the transistor regulator shown in Fig. you would expect? Compare the performance of
a tangent to each graph, determine the output
6.33. Set the variable resistor to produce a load each circuit and, in particular, the range of load
resistance of each regulator circuit. For the simple
current (IL) of 25 mA then measure and record the currents over which effective regulation is
shunt zener diode regulator the output resistance
output voltage produced across the load, VL. Repeat achieved. Which of the transistors had the lowest
should be calculated at IL = 30 mA whilst for the
Figure 6.30 The LM78S40 switched mode power for load current from 50 mA to 250 mA in 25 mA
transistor voltage regulator the output resistance value of output resistance? Can you suggest why
supply controller steps.
should be calculated at IL = 100 mA. this is?
 POWER SUPPLIES 129 130 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Important formulae introduced in this Problems 6.8 The following data were obtained during a
chapter load test carried out on a d.c. power supply:
6.1 A half-wave rectifier is fitted with an R–C Output voltage (no-load) = 8.5 V
Maximum value of series resistor for a simple smoothing filter comprising R = 200 G and Output voltage (800 mA load) = 8.1V
shunt zener diode voltage regulator: C = 50 µF. If 2 V of 400 Hz ripple appear at Determine the output resistance of the power
(page 122) the input of the circuit, determine the mount supply and estimate the output voltage at a
of ripple appearing at the output. load current of 400 mA.
VIN 6.9 The following data were obtained during a
RS max. = RL × 1 6.2 The L–C smoothing filter fitted to a 50 Hz
VIN mains operated full-wave rectifier circuit regulation test on a d.c. power supply:
consists of L = 4 H and C = 500 µF. If 4 V Output voltage (a.c. input: 230 V) = 15 V
Minimum value of series resistor for a simple shunt of ripple appear at the input of the circuit, Output voltage (a.c. input: 190 V) = 14.6 V
zener diode voltage regulator: determine the amount of ripple appearing at Determine the regulation of the power
(page 122) the output. supply and estimate the output voltage when
6.3 If a 9 V zener diode is to be used in a simple the input voltage is 245 V.
VINVZ VZ 2 6.10 Figure 6.38 shows a switching regulator
RS min. = shunt regulator circuit to supply a load
PZ max . circuit that produces an output of 9 V for an
having a nominal resistance of 300 G,
determine the maximum value of series input of 4.5 V. What type of regulator is
Output resistance of a power supply: resistor for operation in conjunction with a this? Between which pins of IC1 is the
(page 123) supply of 15 V. switching transistor connected? Which
change in output voltage Vout 6.4 The circuit of a d.c. power supply is shown pin on IC1 is used to feed back a proportion
Rout = = of the output voltage to the internal
change in output current I out in Fig. 6.37. Determine the voltages that will
Figure 6.34 Graph layout that can be used for the appear at test points A, B and C. comparator stage?
load characteristic of the simple zener voltage 6.5 In Fig. 6.37, determine the current flowing Answers to these problems appear on page 375.
Input (line) regulation of a power supply:
regulator (construct a tangent to the graph at IL = 30 in R1 and the power dissipated in D5 when
(page 123)
mA in order to determine the output resistance) the circuit is operated without any load
change in output voltage connected.
Regulation = × 100%
change in line (input) voltage 6.6 In Fig. 6.37, determine the effect of each of
the following fault conditions:
(a) R1 open-circuit;
(b) D5 open-circuit;
Symbols introduced in this chapter (c) D5 short-circuit.
6.7 A 220 V AC supply feeds a 20:1 step-down
transformer, the secondary of which is
connected to a bridge rectifier and reservoir
capacitor. Determine the approximate d.c.
voltage that will appear across the reservoir
capacitor under ‘no-load’ conditions. Figure 6.38 See Question 6.10

Figure 6.35 Graph layout that can be used for the

load characteristic of the simple zener voltage
regulator (construct a tangent to the graph at IL = Figure 6.36 Circuit symbols introduced in this
100 mA in order to determine the output resistance) chapter Figure 6.37 See Questions 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6
 132 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

7 Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they
contribute negligible noise (signal disturbance) to

Amplifiers the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are

usually designed for use with very small signal
levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).
This chapter introduces the basic concepts of
amplifiers and amplification. It describes the most Figure 7.2 Block diagram for an amplifier
common types of amplifier and outlines the basic
Gain
showing input and output voltages and currents
classes of operation used in both linear and non-
linear amplifiers. The chapter also describes One of the most important parameters of an
methods for predicting the performance of an amplifier is the amount of amplification or gain that
amplifier based on equivalent circuits and on the it provides. Gain is simply the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage, output current to input (b) The current gain is calculated from:
use of semiconductor characteristics and load lines.
Once again, we conclude with a selection of current, or output power to input power (see I out 200 mA
practical circuits that can be built and tested. Fig. 7.2). These three ratios give, respectively, the Ai = = = 50
voltage gain, current gain and power gain. Thus: I in 4 mA

V ou t (c) The power gain is calculated from:

Types of amplifier Voltage gain, A v =
V in I out × Vout 200 mA × 2 V 0.4 W
Ap = = = = 2, 000
I in × Vin 4 mA × 50 mV 200 µ W
Many different types of amplifier are found in I out
electronic circuits. Before we explain the operation Current gain, Ai =
of transistor amplifiers in detail, we shall briefly I in Note that the same result is obtained from:
describe the main types of amplifier. Pout Ap = Ai × Av = 50 × 40 = 2, 000
Power gain, Ap =
a.c. coupled amplifiers Figure 7.1 Part of a high-gain, wideband d.c. Pin
coupled amplifier using discrete components
In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled Note that, since power is the product of current and
together in such a way that d.c. levels are isolated voltage (P = I V), we can infer that: Class of operation
and only the a.c. components of a signal are P I ×V I V
Audio frequency amplifiers
transferred from stage to stage. Ap = out = out out = out × out = Ai × Av An important requirement of most amplifiers is that
Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of Pin Iin ×Vin Iin Vin the output signal should be a faithful copy of the
d.c. coupled amplifiers frequencies that is normally associated with audio input signal, albeit somewhat larger in amplitude.
In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz). Other types of amplifier are non-linear, in which
Example 7.1 case their input and output waveforms will not
coupled together in such a way that stages are not
isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and d.c. signal Wideband amplifiers necessarily be similar. In practice, the degree of
An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for
components are transferred from stage to stage. linearity provided by an amplifier can be affected
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a an input of 50 mV. If the input and output currents
by a number of factors including the amount of bias
very wide range of frequencies, typically from a in this condition are, respectively, 4 mA and
Large-signal amplifiers applied (see later) and the amplitude of the input
few tens of hertz to several megahertz. 200 mA, determine:
signal.
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for (a) the voltage gain; It is also worth noting that a linear amplifier will
appreciable voltage and/or current levels (typically Radio frequency amplifiers become non-linear when the applied input signal
(b) the current gain;
from 1V to 100 V or more). (c) the power gain. exceeds a threshold value. Beyond this value the
Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of amplifier is said to be overdriven and the output
Small-signal amplifiers frequencies that is normally associated with radio will become increasingly distorted if the input
Solution
signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). Note signal is further increased.
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for that it is desirable for amplifiers of this type to be (a) The voltage gain is calculated from: Amplifiers are usually designed to be operated
low-level signals (normally less than 1V and often frequency selective and thus their frequency with a particular value of bias supplied to the active
much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be response may be restricted to a relatively narrow
Vout 2V
Av = = = 40 devices (i.e. transistors). For linear operation, the
specially designed to combat the effects of noise. band of frequencies (see Fig. 7.9 on page 135). Vin 50 mV
 AMPLIFIERS 133 134 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

active device(s) must be operated in the linear part voltage can be applied to a tuned circuit load in
of their transfer characteristic (Vout plotted order to recreate a sinusoidal signal. In effect, the
against Vin). In Fig. 7.3 the input and output signals pulses will excite the tuned circuit and its inherent
for an amplifier are operating in linear mode. This flywheel action will produce a sinusoidal output
form of operation is known as Class A and the bias waveform. This mode of operation is only used in
point is adjusted to the mid-point of the linear part RF power amplifiers that must operate at very high
of the transfer characteristic. Furthermore, current levels of efficiency. Table 7.1 summarizes the
will flow in the active devices used in a Class A classes of operation used in amplifiers.
amplifier during a complete cycle of the signal
waveform. At no time does the current fall to zero.
Input and output resistance

Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input

Figure 7.6 Class B operation (no bias applied) current and it is expressed in ohms. The input of an
amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any
reactive component is negligible) in the middle of
Figure 7.4 Effect of reducing bias and increasing Finally, there is one more class of operation to its working frequency range (i.e. the mid-band). In
input signal amplitude (the output waveform is no consider. The input and output waveforms for some cases, the reactance of the input may become
longer a faithful reproduction of the input) Class C operation are shown in Fig. 7.7. Here the appreciable (e.g. if a large value of stray
bias point is set at beyond the cut-off (zero) point capacitance appears in parallel with the input
and a very large input signal is applied. The output resistance). In such cases we would refer to input
waveform will then comprise a series of quite sharp impedance rather than input resistance.
positive-going pulses. These pulses of current or Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit
output voltage to short-circuit output current and is
measured in ohms. Note that this resistance is
internal to the amplifier and should not be confused
with the resistance of a load connected externally.
As with input resistance, the output of an
Figure 7.3 Class A (linear) operation amplifier is normally purely resistive and we can
safely ignore any reactive component. If this is not
the case, we would once again need to refer to
output impedance rather than output resistance.
Figure 7.4 shows the effect of moving the bias Figure 7.8 shows how the input and output
point down the transfer characteristic and, at the resistances are ‘seen’ looking into the input and
same time, increasing the amplitude of the input output terminals, respectively. We shall be
signal. From this, you should notice that the returning to this equivalent circuit a little later in
extreme negative portion of the output signal has Figure 7.5 Class AB operation (bias set at this chapter. Finally, it’s important to note that,
become distorted. This effect arises from the non- projected cut-off) although these resistance are meaningful in terms
linearity of the transfer characteristic that occurs Figure 7.7 Class C operation (bias is set beyond of the signals present, they cannot be measured
near the origin (i.e. the zero point). Despite the cut-off) using a conventional meter!
obvious non-linearity in the output waveform, the Now let’s consider what will happen if no bias at
active device(s) will conduct current during a all is applied to the amplifier (see Fig. 7.6). The
complete cycle of the signal waveform. output signal will only comprise a series of positive Table 7.1 Classes of operation
Now consider the case of reducing the bias even half-cycles and the active device(s) will only be
further while further increasing the amplitude of the conducting during half-cycles of the waveform (i.e. Class of operation Bias point
Conduction angle Efficiency
Application
input signal (see Fig. 7.5). Here the bias point has they will only be operating 50% of the time). (typical) (typical)
been set at the projected cut-off point. The negative This mode of operation is known as Class B and
A Mid-point 360° 5% to 20% Linear audio amplifiers
portion of the output signal becomes cut off (or is commonly used in high-efficiency push-pull
power amplifiers where the two active devices in AB Projected cut-off 210° 20% to 40% Push-pull audio amplifiers
clipped) and the active device(s) will cease to
conduct for this part of the cycle. This mode of the output stage operate on alternate half-cycles of B At cut-off 180° 40% to 70% Push-pull audio amplifiers
operation is known as Class AB. the waveform. C Beyond cut-off 120° 70% to 90% Radio frequency power amplifiers
 AMPLIFIERS 135 136 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Figure 7.8 Input and output resistances ‘seen’

looking into the input and output terminals,
respectively

Figure 7.10 Frequency response and bandwidth

(output power plotted against frequency)

Frequency response
Figure 7.12 See Example 7.2
The frequency response characteristics for various
types of amplifier are shown in Fig. 7.9. Note that,
for response curves of this type, frequency is Many signals contain harmonic components (i.e.
Example 7.2
almost invariably plotted on a logarithmic scale. signals at 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. where f is the frequency of
The frequency response of an amplifier is usually Determine the mid-band voltage gain and upper the fundamental signal). To reproduce a square
specified in terms of the upper and lower cut-off and lower cut-off frequencies for the amplifier wave, for example, requires an amplifier with a
frequencies of the amplifier. These frequencies are whose frequency response is shown in Fig. 7.12. very wide bandwidth (note that a square wave
those at which the output power has dropped to comprises an infinite series of harmonics). Clearly
50% (otherwise known as the *3dB points) or Solution it is not possible to perfectly reproduce such a wave
where the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7% of its but it does explain why it can be desirable for an
mid-band value. The mid-band voltage gain corresponds with the
amplifier’s bandwidth to greatly exceed the highest
Figures 7.10 and 7.11, respectively, show how flat part of the frequency response characteristic. At
signal frequency that it is required to handle!
the bandwidth can be expressed in terms of either the point the voltage gain reaches a maximum of 35
power or voltage (the cut-off frequencies, f1 and f2, Figure 7.11 Frequency response and bandwidth (see Fig. 7.12).
and bandwidth are identical). (output voltage plotted against frequency) The voltage gain at the two cut-off frequencies
can be calculated from: Phase shift
Av cut-off = 0.707 × Av max = 0.707 × 35 = 24.7 Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and
This value of gain intercepts the frequency output signal voltages measured in degrees. The
response graph at f1 = 57 Hz and f2 = 590 kHz (see measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band
Fig. 7.12). where, for most amplifiers, the phase shift remains
relatively constant. Note also that conventional
single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase
shifts of either 180° or 360°.
Bandwidth

The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as

the difference between the upper and lower cut-off
Negative feedback
frequencies (i.e. f2 I f1 in Figs 7.10 and 7.11). The
bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in
accommodate the range of frequencies present order to precisely control the gain, reduce distortion
within the signals that it is to be presented with. and improve bandwidth. The gain can be reduced to
Figure 7.9 Frequency response and bandwidth (output power plotted against frequency) a manageable value by feeding back a small
 AMPLIFIERS 137 138 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Av 50 50 Transistor amplifiers
G= = = = 8.33
1 + JAv 1 + ( 0.1× 50 ) 6
Regardless of what type of transistor is employed,
Example 7.4 three basic circuit configurations are used. These
If, in Example 7.3, the amplifier’s open-loop three circuit configurations depend upon which one
voltage gain increases by 20%, determine the of the three transistor connections is made common
percentage increase in overall voltage gain. to both the input and the output. In the case of
bipolar transistors, the configurations are known as
Solution common emitter, common collector (or emitter
follower) and common base. Where field effect
The new value of voltage gain will be given by:
Av = Av + 0.2Av = 1.2 × 50 = 60
The overall voltage gain with negative feedback
will then be:
Figure 7.13 Amplifier with negative feedback applied Av 60 60
G= = = = 7.14
1 + J Av 1 + ( 0.1 × 60 ) 7

proportion of the output. The amount of feedback Av × V 'in Av × V 'in The increase in overall voltage gain, expressed as a
Overall gain, G = =
determines the overall (or closed-loop) gain. V 'in + JVout V 'in + J ( Av ×V 'in ) percentage, will thus be:
Because this form of feedback has the effect of 8.57 8.33
reducing the overall gain of the circuit, this form of Thus: ×100% = 2.88% Figure 7.14 Common-emitter configuration
feedback is known as negative feedback. An Av
8.33
alternative form of feedback, where the output is G=
1 + J Av Note that this example illustrates one of the
fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input
(rather than to subtract from it) is known as Hence, the overall gain with negative feedback important benefits of negative feedback in
positive feedback. This form of feedback is used in applied will be less than the gain without feedback. stabilizing the overall gain of an amplifier stage.
oscillator circuits (see Chapter 9). Furthermore, if Av is very large (as is the case with
Figure 7.13 shows the block diagram of an an operational amplifier, see Chapter 8) the overall
amplifier stage with negative feedback applied. In gain with negative feedback applied will be given Example 7.5
this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed by: An integrated circuit that produces an open-loop
back to the input is given by J and the overall gain of 100 is to be used as the basis of an amplifier
G = 1/J (when Av is very large)
voltage gain will be given by: stage having a precise voltage gain of 20.
Note, also, that the loop gain of a feedback Determine the amount of feedback required.
Vout Figure 7.15 Common-collector (emitter follower)
Overall gain, G = amplifier is defined as the product of J and Av.
Vin Solution configuration
Av
Now Vin' = Vin I JVout (by applying Kirchhoff’s Example 7.3 Re-arranging the formula, G =
Voltage Law) (note that the amplifier’s input 1 + J Av
voltage has been reduced by applying negative An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an
to make J the subject gives:
feedback) thus: open-loop voltage gain of 50 and one-tenth of its
output is fed back to the input (i.e. J = 0.1).
Vin =Vin' + JVout 1 1
Determine the overall voltage gain with negative J=
feedback applied. G Av
and
thus
Vout = Av × Vin (Note that Av is the internal gain of Solution
the amplifier) 1 1
With negative feedback applied the overall voltage J= = 0.05 0.01 = 0.04
gain will be given by: 20 100
Hence:
Figure 7.16 Common-base configuration