Topic 2.

Computers Systems

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Definition
Computer system refers to a collection of components/entities that work together to process, store
and manage information using computers

Computer system consist of three main components

i. Hardware
These are the mechanical, electrical and electronic part that makes up computer. They
include monitor, system unit, keyboard, mouse hard disks etc
ii. Software
It is a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity that
happens inside the computer during data processing.
iii. Live ware (computer users)
Refers to users who have computer knowledge and hence can properly utilize the computer
hardware and software resources
iv. Firmware
It’s a combination of both hardware and software in a form of a chip a which may be used
store program. It’s a stored logic

Input Devices
These are devices, which accept data from human readable form and convert them into
electronic or machine-readable form.

Data may be entered into a computer using keying devices, pointing devices, or
automatically captured from the "Source referred to as data capture devices, or by voice
recognition devices such as microphones.

NB: The main purpose of input devices is to convert the human readable data into electronic
or machine-readable form.

Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. This
includes:
i. Keying devices such as the keyboard, keypad etc.
ii. Pointing devices such as mouse, trackball etc
iii. Scanning and other data capture devices. Such as Optical scanners etc
iv. Speech recognition or voice input devices such as microphone
v. Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras

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1. Keying devices
Keyboard and keypad
These devices enter data into a computer by typing. Apart from a few differences, a computer
keyboard is similar to the typewriter keyboard. A keypad is a miniature (tiny) keyboard, which is
mostly used on small portable computers, calculators palm notes, mobile phones etc.

Common types of keying devices include:

i. Traditional keyboards: It’s a full sized rigid keyboards
ii. Ergonomic keyboard: It’s specially design to provide comfort and alleviate wrist strain.
iii. Flexible keyboard: It’s a more portable type of a keyboard that can be folded and packed
into a bag.
iv. Keypad: Is a miniature keyboard used in portable devices such as PDAs, laptops, palm notes,
calculators and mobile phones.
v. Braille keyboard: is a special keyboard for the blind. It consist of keys identified by raised
dots
Advantages of keyboards
i. Its very reliable compared to other methods of text input (voice input)
ii. It’s cost effective since every computer comes with a keyboard and there is no additional
cost.
2. Pointing devices
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
Examples include:
i. Mouse
Enter data or Instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen.
 Mechanical mouse
It has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel.
 The optical mouse
Have a pointing device that uses light emitting diode (LED), an optional sensor and
digital signal processing (DSP) in place of the traditional mouse ball and
electromechanical transducer.
 Cordless (wireless) mouse
Cordless or wireless mouse is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared
waves instead of being physically connected to the system unit.
Uses of a mouse
 To select options from menus or from a set of icons by clicking the mouse button .
 To position the cursor when editing text or using design package
 To select an object in a drawing or a piece of text to be copied, moved or deleted.
Advantages of using a mouse
 Is easy and convenient to use
 It is inexpensive
 Most modern software includes an option to use it
 It selects a position on screen much more quickly than a keyboard
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used to input text easily, you need a keyboard to do that.
 It is relatively slow for selecting menu options
 Requires a flat surface to operate
 It is not accurate for drawing purposes

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Computer Mouse

ii. Track ball

A trackball works just like the mouse but instead of moving it on a flat surface, a ball fixed
on its top is rolled using the index finger. As the ball rotates, it moves a pointer on the screen
one can then click its button to execute the selected command.
Advantages
 It does require a flat surface or extra space to operate

iii. Joystick
A joystick is an input device that looks like a car gear lever, which can be moved sideways,
upwards, or downwards to control the position of the cursor or objects on the screen. Just
like the mouse, it has a button, which is used for selecting an item. It is commonly used in
playing video game

iv. Light pen

It is a hand held pen-like device that has a light sensitive point. A light pen can make
selections, place images, draw and indicate dimensions by simply touching the screen. A
light pen does not emit light but instead, it reacts to the light emitted by the display using a
photosensitive detector at its base.
Uses of a light pen
 Are used as design aids

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 Used to read bar codes and to indicate a point on the a screen or pad
Advantages
 Provide a direct mode of input
 More precise than using a mouse
Disadvantages
 Can only detect the presence and absence of light
 Can only be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU, which is able to sense special
hardware and software.

Light pen

3. Scanning devices (Document readers)

They are devices that capture data into the computer directly. They are classified according to the
technology they use to capture data.
Classification of Scanners
i) Optical Scanners
They capture data using light. A light beam passes over an object and the image is analyzed
by specialized software. They are of three types

a) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

Detect marks made on a piece of paper using a soft pen or pencil, by passing an infrared
beam of light over them. The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. The
OMR converts the marks into computer readable data. The reader detects the presence and
absence of a mark on a form by sensing reflected infrared light
Advantages of OMR
i. Has low error rates
ii. Conspicuous errors are easily corrected
iii. Data captured at source, hence minimizing amount of manual work
Disadvantages of OMR
i. Mark readers are relatively slow
ii. Verification of marked data is difficult iii. Not widely used in business

Application of OMR
i. Marking of multiple-choice examination papers e.g. KCPE or aptitude test.
ii. Insurance premium collection
iii. Analyzing responses to structured questionnaires
iv. Selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets
v. Payroll data entry
vi. Market research questionnaires
vii. Voter's registration process

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Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

b) Optical Bar Recognition (OBR)

These scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying thickness known
as bar codes or Universal Product Code (UPC). Scan and translate a bar code into
machine understandable mode. Bar codes are lines of different thickness and are
common on consumer products and contain item information such as country of
manufacture, manufacturer and the product code. Bar codes do not have the price
details because prices vary from one place to another.

There are two types of bar code scanners

i. The hand held wand
ii. The desktop bar code reader

Advantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can be printed by normal printing methods
ii. The type of item or price does not have to be repeatedly written / typed
Disadvantages of OBR
i. Bar codes can only be read by machines
ii. Only numbers can be coded in this way
iii. They are relatively fixed, so they are unsuitable for recording prices
which can frequently change
Application of OBR
i. On labels and on shelves for stocktaking
ii. Printed on shop goods e.g. Supermarkets, wholesale shops
iii. In libraries

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Optical Bar Recognition (OBR) wand

c) Optical Character/image Scanner (OCR)

Is the most advanced type of scanner that works like the human eye. It is used to
read typewritten, computer printed, or handwritten characters and transforms the
images into a softcopy that can be manipulated using a word processor. Today OCR
comes as integrated feature of more advanced scanners called flat-bed scanners are
used to capture pictures and real objects.
Advantages of OCR
i. Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
ii. Its an easier method to use
iii. Document design is less complicated
iv. Characters can be read by people
Disadvantages of OCR
i. Some Optical scanners are expensive
ii. Handling precaution is necessary e.g. document should not be folded or
creased for accurate reading.
iii. Only certain font is acceptable
Application of OCR
i. Used in billing

Optical Character/image Scanner (OCR)

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iii) Magnetic Scanners

These scanners use the principle of magnetism to sense the document characters that have
been written using magnetized ink. They can also be said to use magnetic technology to
capture data.
a) Magnetic - Ink character recognition (MICR)
This scanner is able to detect characters written in special magnetic ink. It is used in banks to
read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
i. Its fast, accurate and automatic
ii. The codes are' both machine and human readable
iii. Reduces forgery i.e. its difficult to forge
Disadvantages of MICR
i. MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
ii. MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.

b) Magnetic Stripe recognition (Magnetic card reader)

A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a plastic card such as
ATM card. The magnetic stripe is used to recognize the data in such cards.
Advantages of magnetic stripes
i. Simple to produce
ii. Not easy damaged
iii. Stores fairly large numbers of characters
Disadvantages of magnetic stripes
i. Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields
Application of magnetic stripes
i. On credit cards
ii. On bank cards e.g. A TM
iii. As tags on clothes
iv. As a phone card
v. Production control where punched cards holds data in a factory like employee's
details
vi. Access control for security reasons in many offices to control access to buildings or
rooms
vii. Car parks where badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry or exit from a
car park.

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Magnetic Stripe recognition (Magnetic card reader)

4. Speech Recognition Devices / voice input

This is a type of input method where microphone is used to enter data in form of spoken
words directly into the computer.

Advantages of Speech Recognition

i. No keyboards is necessary i.e. very fast
ii. Useful in situations where
a. Hands or eyes are busy handling documents etc.
b. People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used
iii. Can be used from remote locations via the telephone

Disadvantages of Speech Recognition

i. Homophones - Some words sound the same.
ii. Recognition is slow
iii. Limited vocabularies
iv. Background noise can disrupt the data entered.
v. Speaker variability i.e. the speed, pitch, loudness, pronunciation of individuals

Application Areas of Speech Recognition

i. Security and Access control e.g. – Office security for room access, House/car
security
ii. Quality control and automatic in factories i.e. speech input used to order Robots.
iii. Automated materials handling in airports to direct luggage to appropriate conveyor
belt
iv. Voice activated toys and games

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Speech Recognition Devices / voice input

Other Digital Devices

a) Touch Screen
It utilizes the technology of a touch sensitive screen. It works by allowing the, user
to touch the screen in order to select an item. The screen consists of infrared light
crisscrossing behind it. When the user touches a location on the screen, this device
recognizes the location of a contact on the screen through a built-in grid of sensing
lines and sensors.

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b) Digital Cameras
Capture the same way as other cameras do but stores image in digital form. Pictures
are stored on a memory card instead of a film. The digital image taken can be
streamed directly into a computer, uploaded to internet using a webcam or directly
printed using a special photo printer. Are used to take electronic pictures of an object

They are of two types

i. Still digital camera one that can take still images i.e. photographs
ii. A video digital camera that takes motion pictures

c) Digitizers /Graphic table

A digitizer also known as graphic table1 is made up of a flat surface and allows the
user to draw an image using a stylus. The image drawn does not appear on the tablet
on the computer screen. The stylus moves on the tablet and the drawing is directly
reflected on the screen.

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Factors to consider while selecting an Input device

i. Device cost
The initial cost and recurrent cost to be weighed against the expected benefits and operational characteristics of
the facility
ii. Device speed of data input
iii. Data volume: It should cope with that data volume to be input with appropriate timing.
iv. Device accuracy: Choosing a bar code instead of a keyboard for a point of sale in the supermarkets
v. Device reliability its should serve without failing
vi. Mode of operation: This will depend on the nature of the system i.e. data processing system.
vii. Appropriateness: weigh out the merits and demerits of the device in relation to where it is applied / used

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Definition of terms
 Fetch instruction: Read instructions from the memory
 Interpret instructions: Decode the instruction to determine the operation to
be performed
 Process data: Execute the instruction
 Decode Interpret an instruction
 Write data: Results may mean writing data to memory or an
I/O device

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CPU
The CPU also known as the Processor or microprocessor is a tiny chip etched into a silicon chip. It’s
regarded as the brain (most important component) of the computer. This is so because all data
execution (processing of instructions) and control operations are coordinated here. In
microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit. It is mounted on a circuit board known as
the motherboard or the system board. The control unit fetches instruction from the main memory
then send to ALU for execution in a process referred to as fetch execute cycle.
Functional organization of the CPU

CPU
Arithmetic and logic unit
Registers

Control unit

Data Information

Input unit Main memory Output Unit

Data /
Information

Auxiliary / secondary storage

Timing and
control signals
Key
Data/
Information
CPU is made up of the following main parts flow
i. Control unit
ii. Arithmetic and logic unit
iii. Registers

Control unit
It’s a circuitry located in the CPU that coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as
input, storage and output operations. It issues timing and control signals which determines which
operation or instruction is to be executed next. To coordinate these activities, the control unit uses a
system clock

The system clock sends electric signals as its means of communication, just like the traffic officer
does in a round about to direct motorists and other road users. The number of pulses per second
determines the speed of a microprocessor. The faster the clock pulses, the faster the CPU hence the
faster the computer can process data.

Arithmetic and logic unit

Its part of the CPU that performs

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i. Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division and multiplication as well as

ii. Logic operations to compare two or more values such as greater than or less than, equal to
or not equal to, AND, OR and NOT among others.

In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage locations called
registers, which holds the data just before processing and results after processing. The results of an
arithmetic-logic unit operation are usually transferred to the accumulator (AC).

Special purpose memories

This are types of memories embedded in the microprocessor in order to enhance its processing
speed. These memories include registers, buffer and cache memory

1. Registers
Registers are the smallest units of memory and are located internally within the CPU and are most
often used to either temporarily store results or control information. Registers within the CPU serve
two basic functions:

 User-visible registers: these enable to machine/assembly language programs to minimize

main memory references by optimizing use of registers.

 Control and Status registers: used by the control unit to control the operation of the CPU
and by privileged, operating system programs to control the execution of programs.

a) Accumulator (AC)
The contents can be used by the arithmetic-logic unit for arithmetic and logic operations, and by the
memory buffer register. Usually, all results generated by the arithmetic-logic unit end up in the
accumulator.

b) Instruction Register (IR)

Holds the contents of the last instruction fetched. This instruction is now ready to be executed and is
accessed by the control unit.

d) Memory Address Register (MAR) / Address Register (AR)

This register specifies the address in memory where information can be found and can be also used
to point to a memory location where information is to be stored.
e) Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
The main purpose of this register is to act as an interface between the central processing unit and
memory. When the control unit receives the appropriate signal, the memory location stored in the
memory address register is used to copy data from or to the memory buffer registers.
f) Storage registers (SR)
Hold a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU
g) Program Counter (PC)
Contains the memory address of the next instruction to be executed. The contents of the program
counter are copied to the memory address register before an instruction is fetched from memory. At
the completion of the fetched instruction, the control unit updates the program counter to point to the
next instruction, which is to be fetched
h) Program Status Word (PSW)

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Generally referred to as a Status Register (SR), this register encapsulates key information used by the
CPU to record exceptional conditions. Conditions such as CPU-detected errors (an instruction
attempting to divide by zero), hardware faults detected by error checking circuits, and urgent service
requests or interrupts generated by the I/O modules
2. Buffers
This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input or output device.
Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output devices, buffers provide temporary
storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be
entered or information to be output. For example since a printer cannot work at the speed of a CPU,
the printer buffers temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other
functions.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.
3. Cache Memory
Most modem processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called cache memory. The
purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and instructions even more faster
than it would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow DRAM.
There are three types of cache memory
 Level 1 also known as primary cache located inside the microprocessor
 Level 2 also known as external cache that may be inside the microprocessor or mounted on the
motherboard
 Level 3 is the latest type of cache that work with level 2 cache to optimize system performance.
Virtual memory
If you have limited memory or you have many programs open, your computer may need to use part
of the hard drive to simulate more memory. This simulated more memory is called virtual memory
and allows the computer to continue operation but at much slower speed.
NB All the above registers are located in the central processing unit.
The CPU performs the following functions:
i. Processing data through fetch and execute cycle coordinated by the system clock
ii. System control by issuing timing and control signals
iii. Provide temporary storage (registers) and permanent storage like ROM
iv. Runs the Operating System software installed on the computer, peripheral devices
such as printers, scanners etc
v. Gives commands to all parts of the computer system
vi. Control the use of the main memory
vii. Perform all computation
Computer memory

Main memory (primary storage or working storage)

Main memory also known as primary storage provides storage location for data and instructions
accessed by the CPU.
Main memory has the following functions
i. Holding data just before and after processing
ii. Holding instructions just before and execution

Computer memory can be classified into read only memory (ROM) and random access memory
(RAM).

Read only memory (ROM)

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Read only memory is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently or Semi-
permanently. Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to remain unchanged for long
periods of time e.g. booting instructions like for POST and BIOS, special purpose computers and
computerized fuel pumps instructions etc.

Depending on permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are four types of read only
memory (ROM) namely;
i. Mask read only memory
This type of ROM is written once at the time of manufacture and cannot be changed.
ii. Programmable read only memory (PROM)
This allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it. Once programmed
the content cannot be changed
iii. Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)
This has a transparent quartz window through which its contents, can be erased by exposing
it to ultra violet (UV) light, and then reprogrammed for another use.
iv. Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM)
This type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. An example of
EEPROM is the memory that stores the basic input/output system (BIOS).

Advantages of read only memory (ROM)

i. One can only read its content but you cannot write on it unless it is a special type of ROM
ii. It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off.
iii. Stores permanent or semi-permanent instructions from the manufacturer called firmware. It
can store semi-permanent instructions because some variations of ROM chips can be
programmed according to the user s specification.

Disadvantages of read only memory (ROM)

i. Some ROM cannot be altered after being programmed.
ii. Since they are inbuilt in the mother board or in the processor they are cost effective in
production. Since they never be needed after initial production of the computer.
Characteristics of ROM
i. They are non volatile
ii. Can only be read and cannot be written on unless it’s a special type of ROM
iii. They store permanent or semi-permanent instructions from the manufacturer
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is mostly referred to as working storage. It is called random access memory (RAM) because
its content can be read directly regardless of the sequence in which it was stored. RAM holds the
programs being run and the data being used by the CPU at the current time. As opposed to ROM,
the content in RAM is held temporarily and its content is lost once the computer is turned off. RAM
is the memory used in large quantities in Main Memory and every computer must specify its size.

Characteristics of random access memory (RAM) are:

i. Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
ii. RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its content disappears when the computer is
switched off.
iii. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the RAM.

Types of RAM
There are two types of RAM namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM).

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1. Static RAM (SRAM)

SRAM is a fast type of memory found inside a microprocessor. They are used in special purpose
memories known as cache memory discussed earlier.

Characteristics of SRAM
i. It is a very fast memory and holds its contents as long as there is power.
ii. Its content 'does not require refreshment
iii. It is expensive
iv. It is very fast compared to DRAM
v. Found inside a microprocessor
vi. Its mostly used to make special types of memories known as Cache memory
vii. Used for smaller memories since it has low packing density

2. Dynamic RAM
They are slower types of RAM compared to SRAM. The term dynamic, refer to the tendency for the
stored charge to leak away, even with constant power supply. For this reason, DRAM requires
periodic recharging referred to as refreshing to maintain the data stored.

Characteristics of DRAM
i. Require constant refreshing to avoid losing of content
ii. Offer slower access time compared to SRAM
iii. Cheaper compared to SRAM
iv. They are located outside the CPU

A DRAM

Types of DRAM

Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory FPM DRAM

Is one of the earlier forms of RAM type and is an improvement over the conventional DRAM.
Traditional DRAM requires the physical column and row address of each memory cell for each
memory access, whereas FPM DRAM uses one row address for multiple accesses.

Extended Data-Out Dynamic Random Access Memory EDO DRAM

It’s an improvement of FPM DRAM based on the concept of allowing a memory access to begin
before the last one is finished. It performs more than one task at a time. This saves time by
overlapping the processes required to retrieve a set of data.

Extended correct code (ECC) is a special type of DRAM that corrects errors and is mainly used in
servers

Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory SDRAM

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Has a speed twice that of EDO RAM because its able to run at the speed of the system bus up to 100-
133 MHz

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM)

Got its name from the company that developed it, Rambus, inc. the memory uses a special Rambus
channel that has a data transfer rate or 800 MHz

Most of the PCs and laptops have the following types of DRAM
i. Dual-inline packages (DIP) – Attached to the motherboard of PCs
ii. Single inline memory module (SIMM) – Used for old Pentium and currently have been
faced out
iii. Dual inline memory module (DIMM - Used for Pentium I, II, III computers
iv. Small outline DIMM (SoDIMM) - Used mostly for laptops its half the size of DIMM
v. MicroDIMM - Allow higher density of data storage. Mostly designed for portable computers

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is equivalent to a
single character, which can be numbers 0 - 9, letters A - Z or a special symbol e.g. a number 2341
has 4 bytes, while words SGC Centre has 10 bytes since the space between them is one byte.

Memory quantities can be expressed in

i. Kilobytes (KB) - Approximately one thousand bytes (103)
ii. Megabytes (MB) - Approximately one million bytes (106)
iii. Gigabytes (GB) - Approximately one billion bytes (1012)
iv. Terabytes (TB) - Approximately one trillion bytes (1024)

Overall organization of the CPU

The ALU, CU and Main Memory use electrical pathways or links called buses. A bus is an electrical
path for signal to flow from one point to another in a circuit. There are three types of computer buses
namely:
i) Control bus
These are unidirectional pathway for all timing and control functions sent by the control unitAddress
to other bus
parts of the system.
ii) Address bus
These are unidirectional buses from the microprocessor used to locate the storage position in
memory or a device to be acted on by the microprocessor. The size of the address bus tells you how
much memory the chip can handle INPUT
CPU MAIN
iii) Data bus
(Microprocessor) OUTPUT
MEMORY DEVICES
These are bi-directional buses that carry information, and data to and form the microprocessor. The
size of the data bus is an indication of the information moving capability of the chip

Control bus
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Data bus

Microprocessor communication to main memory and I/O devices via buses

 Topic 2. Computers Systems

Main memory / Primary memory

ROM RAM

1. MROM … Never Altered SRAM DRAM

In the CPU Located outside the CPU
2. PROM … Altered once
No frequent refreshing Require frequent refreshing
3. EPROM … Altered using UV rays Not as fast as SRAM
needed
4. EEROM … Altered using electricity Very fast Cheap
Very expensive

Computer main memory summary diagram

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Types of processors and their clock speeds

Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a complete CPU where ALU and Control unit has been combined into a tiny
single processor. The microprocessor chips use many different internal designs, and the chips vary in
appearance and capability.

Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are:

i. Bandwidth: This is the number of bits that can be processed by one instruction
ii. Clock speed or Clock Rate: This is the speed of the internal timer that determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute. The internal clock regulates the rate at
which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The
faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute.
iii. Instruction set: These are the set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute

Processor clock speed

The speed at which a processor executes instructions is determined by its clock speed. System clock
speed is measured in hertzs. A hertz is a unit of frequency, which measures the number of cycles per
second in a signal.

Quantities of the clock speed can be expressed in;

i. Kilohertz (kHz): Approximately one thousand hertz’s
ii. Megahertz (MHz): Approximately one million hertz’s
iii. Gigahertz (GHz): Approximately one billion hertz’s

NB: Modern CPUs reach over 3 GHz

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Types of processors
Processor Description Clock speed
Intel 8086 The two are almost identical and were 4.7 MHz - 10 MHz
and 8088 used with the first IBMPCs 8086 was an
Improvement of 8088

Intel 80286 Provided increased performance over 6 MHz - 20 MHz

8086. This was the processor that opened
up the PCs to many users.

80386SX Apart from Intel s 80286, AMD produced 33 MHz – 40 MHz

and their versions with copied greatly the
80368DX Intel. This were the first entry in the
processor market

80486SX Provided over 100% better performance 25 MHz – 50 MHz

and than 80386 and were the first ungradable
80486DX Processors. AMD and Cyrix produced
their version too.

Pentium Since 1992, Intel decided to coin their 60 MHz - presently

(586) and fifth generation with the name Pentium Pentium IV with over
above instead of 80586. Pent is a Latin word 2.8 GHz
that means five. Intel chose the word in
order to distinguish its 80586 and above
processors from AMD and Cyrix versions
i.e. 5x86 and AMDK5 respectively.
Examples of Intel Pentium processor are
Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX, Pentium II
and currently Pentium IV and Pentium
IV Duo core processor

OUTPUT DEVICES

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Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after
the processing operations.

There are two types of output devices

i. Softcopy output devices
Softcopy refers to the intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or through other
output devices such as speakers, or monitors
ii. Hardcopy output devices.
A hardcopy is a tangible output produced mostly on papers by devices such as printers.

Output devices

Softcopy Output devices Hardcopy Output devices

1. Monitors
i. CRT
ii. Flat panel display Printers Plotter
LCD
LE
Gas plasma
TFT
2. Sound Impact Printers Non-impact
3. Projectors Printers
4. LED

Examples Examples
Dot Matrix Ink jet
Daisy wheel Thermal
Golf ball Laser
Drum Electrostatic
Chain

Summary diagram for the output devices

Summary diagram for the output devices

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Softcopy output devices.

Some of the softcopy output devices are;

A. MONITORS
Also known as Visual Display Unit or Screen. It displays information in form of text, pictures and
video on the screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the computer.

Terms associated with computer display include:

Pixel (Short for picture elements)
Is a single dot or point or in an electronic image, which is used to form the image displayed on the
screen. In color monitor, a pixel has three primary colours namely red, green and blue.

Colour depth
Refers to number of colours, which can be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in bits.

Resolution
Is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch (dpi) or bits. The
higher the resolution, the more the number of pixels per inch, hence the clearer/sharper the images

Refresh rate
Since the CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM is used to refresh
the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low fresh rate, images tend to flicker
hence causing eyestrain.

Display size
Its measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured from corner to corner mostly
15 or 17 or 19 or 20 or 21 inches

Graphic adapter / Video Cards / Video adapter

Graphic Adapter / Video card is a piece of circuit board plugged to the motherboard that connects a
monitor to a computer and allows the computer to show images and text on its screen. The video
adapter determines the resolution and clarity of the monitor. The monitor is connected to the system
unit through the video port to a video adapter.

Examples of graphic adapters are:

i. Monochrome display adapter (MDA):
This was the first video card that was used in early computers. MDA displayed text only in
one colour.

ii. Hercules graphics card (HGC):

One weakness of the original MDA display was that, it could not support images of
any kind. Hercule graphic card supports monochrome images in addition to text.

iii. Color graphics adapter (CGA):

This can display text and images using up to 16 colours.

iv. Enhanced graphics adapter (EGA):

This is an improvement over colour graphic adapter but also displayed text and images using
16 colours.

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v. Video graphics array (VGA):

This offers at most 256 colours.

vi. Super video graphics array (SVGA):

This is an enhancement of video graphic array capabilities offering over 256 colours.

Types of monitors
i. Monochrome Monitor
It displays images and text in only one colour mostly black and white.
ii. Colour Monitor
It displays images and text in multiple colours.

Examples of monitors in the market today

1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The screen is curved slightly outward forming a convex shape. A

CRT monitor consists of a long glass tube with an electron gun on
one end and a screen on the other end. The screen is coated with
tiny phosphorus dots that illuminate red, green and blue to make a
pixel. The CRTs are too bulk to carry around, consume a lot of
power and are cheap to buy.

2. Flat panel display

The screen is flat, they are portable, consume less power, comfortable to use occupy less space, are
expensive and provides high quality output. Small portable laptops, notebooks and even desktop
PCs use flat-panel display.

Common types of this display are:

i. Liquid crystal display (LCD)

Liquid crystal displays do not display by emitting light of their own.

Instead, they have tiny liquid crystals that reflect light falling on them
from the environment. Liquid crystal displays are widely used in
watches, calculators, cell phones and digital cameras.

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ii. Electro luminescent (EL)

These displays are an improvement on LCDs thus better image

quality than LCDs. Electro luminescent emits light when
electrically charged. This makes them clear, sharper and easier
to read.

An EL Display works by sandwiching a thin film of

phosphorescent substance between two plates. One plate is
coated with vertical wires and the other with horizontal wires, forming a grid. When an electrical
current is passed through a horizontal and vertical wire, the phosphorescent film at the intersection
glows, creating a point of light, or pixel.

iii. Gas-plasma

They use gas that emits light when electric current is passed
through them. They contain millions of pixels that are
illuminated by charged neon gas. Gas Plasma panels do not
suffer from angle distortion and the technology is popularly used
in producing high definition TVs (HDTV) with large screens
used in homes and entertainment places. They offer large screen
sizes and higher display quality than LCD but are more
expensive.

iv. Thin film transistor (TFT)

This is the latest technological advancement in displays. It

provides high quality output than all the others.

Comparison of CRT and TFT monitors

CRT TFT
1 Slightly Curved outwards Flat
2 Consume more power Consume less power
3 Generate a lot of heat Generate negligible amount of heat
4 Poor resolution Higher resolution
5 Bulky and occupy more space Not bulky
6 Heavy Portable and occupy less space

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7 Cheap More expensive

B. SOUND OUTPUT DEVICES

This output is in form of spoken words. Speakers are used to output
sound from a computer. Sound may be output inform of music,
warning, video, interactive communication with the computer or to give
messages in emergency situation. Speakers can be external or internal.
Some computers have internal speakers like Compaq. An external
speaker should be connected to a sound card through the jacks on the
system unit or on a multimedia monitor.

Advantages:
i. No reading is needed
ii. Useful in situation where you can't look at the screen or where you are too busy
Disadvantage
i. Not suitable for noisy situations
ii. Inappropriate for lengthy or permanent information

Applications of sound output

i. Learning Aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning
ii. Lift where messages are used to greet visitors and tell them the floor they are in.
iii. Emergency massages i.e. Public address systems, in cars when running out of petrol.
iv. Text speech translation for blind people

C. LCD Projectors
Are used to display output from a computer on plain white
paper screen like a wall or whiteboard. It's actually a creative
and interesting technology way of presenting computer output
to an audience unlike traditional overhead projectors

Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

These are light emitting components that display light when

an electric current is passed through them. A good example
is the red or green light displayed by the system unit to help
the user know whether it is ON or OFF

Mostly LEDs are used to give warnings the same way a

motorist would use signals to indicate when he/she is
overtaking or taking a turn.

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Hardcopy Output Devices

Hardcopy devices are devices that produce output on paper in form of text or graphics. This output
can be seen and touched since its recorded on a physical media. Hardcopy output devices are
printers, plotters and facsimile (fax).

Examples of hardcopy output devices

Printers
Printers produce a hard copy of information on papers. The quality of the hardcopy depends the
printers printing mechanism. There are two types of printers namely impact and non-impact printers.

A. Impact printers
They produce characters by using special light hammers with characters or pins held on the printing
head. To print, a paper is placed behind an ink ribbon. When the hammer strikes on the head,
character mark is stamped. These printers are noisy and are mostly used to produce rough copies.
The two widely used impact printers are dot matrix and daisy-wheel printers and the golf ball
printers.

Examples of impact printers

i. Dot matrix printers

Dot matrix printers produces a hardcopy by arranging

patterns of dots on the paper using pins held in the
printing head. The printing head element is made up of a
set of arranged needles, which are activated
depending on the character to be formed for printing.

ii. Daisy wheel printers

A daisy-wheel printer has a wheel with petals on

which characters are mounted. It is so called
because it resembles a daisy flower. When printing,
the wheel rotates allowing the petals to hit a
ribbon with different characters as they are received
from the computer.

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iii. Golf ball printers

The character images are incorporated on the surface of a

gold ball like Print head, which is either rotating or
pivoted

iv. Drum Printer

It provides one whole line print at a time. The

characters are incorporated on circular
bands that move round the surface of the
drum surface

v. Chain Printer

It's an impact line printer that incorporates

engraved characters printing slugs on a
moving chain or belt. The chain moves the
character printing slugs at high constant
speed past printing positions.

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Non-impact printers

B. These printers do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters on a piece of
paper. They do not hammer the ribbon hence they are much quieter. The major non-
impact printers are inkjet, thermal transfer and laser printers.

i. Inkjet printers

Inkjet printers form characters by spraying

ink from tiny nozzles through an
electrical field that arranges the
charged ink particles into characters.
Inkjets are cheap to buy but expensive to
run because of the high cost of ink
cartridges.

ii. Thermal printers

Thermal printers use heat to transfer

characters onto a piece of paper i.e. they
bond characters onto a piece of paper by
using hot pins which presses against a
special ribbon. They are inexpensive
alternative to inkjets.

iii. Laser printers

Laser printers prints by passing a laser beam back

and forth over a rotating drum. The laser beam
draws the image on the drum by static electricity.
The charged areas pick up the ink toner from a
cartridge, and press it onto the paper. Although
these printers are more expensive to buy, they
are faster, and cheaper to run than the inkjets.

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iv. Electrostatic Printer

It is a non-impact that uses electrostatic charges

to form characters in a line on a special
paper.

Plotters

A plotter resembles a printer but specializes in

producing big charts such as maps, pictures and
drawings. They are mostly used for printing
geographical, architectural and engineering
drawings e.g. maps, advertisement posters to be
placed on billboards machine parts etc.

Differences between impact and non impact printers

IMPACT PRINTER NON IMPACT PRINTERS

Slow Faster
Use ink ribbon Use thermal or electrostatic principles
Cheaper Expensive
Noisy Quiet
Allow multiple copy printing Multiple copy printing almost impossible
Fair quality printout Very good quality printout

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