Topics to cover:

​Computer Fundamentals
​Computer Hardware
​Input & Output Devices
​Storage
​Secondary Storage
​Cloud Storage
​Software
​Interfaces
​System Specification
​Troubleshooting
​Information Processing
​Networks
​Transmission Media
​Problem Solving
 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

What is Information Technology?

— Information technology(IT) deals with the study of data and data processing,
and may also supply to the management of computer systems, particularly in a
business setting.

When used in business, IT facilitates the business by providing four sets of core
services. These core services provide information, tools to improve productivity,
business process automation and a means to connect with customers.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
●​ SUPERCOMPUTERS - They are the world’s fastest, very expensive and most
powerful computers. They are designed to process complex scientific
applications. Examples include: Cray, IBM Built Summit, Sierra

●​ MAINFRAMES - They are very powerful computers that are very expensive.
They offer more processor capacity and greater storage capacity than a
typical desktop computer. Mainframes can handle thousands of users
simultaneously and can perform tasks that require a lot of computational
power. Examples include: IBM zSeries, IBM zEnterprise System

●​ DESKTOP COMPUTERS - Desktop computer systems are designed to stay in

a single location and must remain connected to a wall outlet. They may lack
portability, they offer similar or even better functionality to laptops,
smartphones and other devices. Examples include: Personal computers,
Gaming consoles (some)

●​ MOBILE DEVICES - A mobile device (or handheld computer) is a computing

device small enough to hold and operate in the palm of the hand. Many such
devices can connect to the internet and interconnect with other devices
such as car entertainment systems or headsets via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular
 networks or near field communication (NFC). Examples of this include:
laptops, notebooks, netbooks, smartphones, tablets, game consoles

●​ EMBEDDED SYSTEMS - An embedded computer is a special-purpose

computer used inside a device and is usually dedicated to specific functions.
It is housed on a single printed circuit board that provides all the circuitry
necessary for a microprocessor and any other necessary components.
Examples: microwaves, car ignition systems, answering machines, smart
televisions, washing machines, sewing machines, cameras, cars and motors,
clocks

WHERE CAN THEY BE USED?

●​ SUPERCOMPUTER
-Can be used for ‘number crunching’ in scientific simulations and scientific research
in the areas of:
❖​ Energy
❖​ Space exploration
❖​ Medicine
*Number crunching is the ability to perform large amounts of numerical
computations quickly.

●​ MAINFRAMES
-Can be found in large organizations, such as:
❖​ Banks
❖​ Government agencies
❖​ Insurance companies
❖​ Corporations
*Typically mainframes perform bulk data processing such as census,
industry/consumer statistics and bank transaction processing.

●​ DESKTOP COMPUTERS
-Can be found in:
 ❖​ Homes
❖​ Offices
❖​ Factories
*Desktop Computers are used for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing,
and for running spreadsheet and database management applications.

●​ MOBILE DEVICES
-Can be found anywhere that a device can be used, due to its portability. These
devices will also have the characteristics of:
❖​ A battery that powers the device and last for several hours
❖​ A physical or onscreen keyboard
❖​ A touchscreen
❖​ Small size and lightweight

●​ EMBEDDED SYSTEM
-An embedded system is one kind of a computer system mainly designed to perform
several tasks like to access, process, store and control the data in various
electronics-based systems. Embedded systems support to make the work more
perfect and convenient. They can also detect light, temperature and pressure.
 COMPUTER HARDWARE
COMPUTERIZED DEVICES
-​ These are devices that contain a computer chip. Examples include:
Microwave, A/C, Smart Phone, Smart Fridge, Smart Watch, Cellphone,
Security Camera, Sensor, etc.

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
-​ A computer may be defined as an electronic device which accepts input,
processes the input and produces results (output) from the processing and
stores data and results for future use.

DESCRIBE THE COMPUTER

-​ The computer is the chip inside of a computer system or device. Also called:
●​ Processor
●​ Computer chip
●​ Computer
●​ Processor chip

WHAT IS A COMPUTER SYSTEM?

-​ A computer system is a combination of hardware, software and the individual
who utilizes the functions of the system. It consists of a monitor, keyboard,
mouse and system unit.
MAJOR HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
★​ Input Devices
★​ Central Processing Unit
★​ Primary Memory (RAM and ROM)
★​ Output Devices
★​ Secondary Storage Devices

FUNCTIONS OF THE COMPONENTS

❖​ Input Devices - they get data, instructions or commands into a computer for
processing. A mouse, keyboard, touch screen, joystick, biometric systems
and a scanner are all examples of input devices.

❖​ The Central Processing Unit (CPU) - this is the brain of a computer also
called the microprocessor and controls how the rest of the computer works.
It is assisted by the Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
The CU carries out instructions in the software and directs the flow of data
through the computer; the ALU performs the calculations and logic
operations.

❖​ Output Devices - they get processed information out of a computer, for

example to a printer, monitor or even speakers.

❖​ Storage Devices - include floppy disk drives, hard disk drives, flash drives,
CD ROM drives and so on that are used for storing information permanently.

❖​ Memory - enables a computer to temporarily store instructions and data for

example the RAM chip.

HARDWARE
-​ Hardware devices are the physical parts of the computer system that
perform the actions in the system. For example: mouse, keyboard, printer
and web camera.
SOFTWARE
-​ Software is computer programs that tell the hardware how to work. For
example: Google Chrome, Microsoft Excel, Fortnite and Instagram.

DATA
-​ Data is raw facts and figures. For instance 12, French or Music.

INFORMATION
-​ Information is processed data; that has given understanding or meaning to
data. For instance grade = 12; Languages - French; Subject = Music.

PERIPHERAL DEVICES
-​ Peripheral devices are hardware devices that are connected to the system
unit.

BI-STABLE
-​ A Bi-stable device is a device that is in one of two states. Either on or off;
yes or no or true or false.

THE MACHINE CYCLE

-​ These are the steps performed by the computer processor (CPU) for each
machine language instruction received. The machine cycle is a 4 process cycle
that includes reading and interpreting the machine language, executing the
code and then storing that code. There are four steps of the Machine cycle:
➔​ Fetch: Retrieve an instruction from the memory.
➔​ Decode: Translate the retrieved instruction into a series of computer
commands.
➔​ Execute: Execute the computer commands.
➔​ Store/Write Back: Send and write the results back in memory.
 INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES

INPUT DEVICES

❖​ An input device is any hardware device that sends data to a computer,

allowing you to interact with and control it.

❖​ What an input device sends (inputs) to a computer depends on the device.

Additionally, all input devices send data from the device over a cable or
wireless transmission to the computer.

Classifications of Input Devices:

➔​ Keyboard Devices
-​ There are many types of keyboards which include the most popular
QWERTY, Dvorak, Wireless, Ergonomic and Braille.

➔​ Touch Devices
-​ Touch devices include the Touch Screen (which also functions as an
output device) and the Digitizing Pad. Unlike the touch screen, the
digitizing pad does not provide any type of display. The digitizing pad
is normally used to capture signatures.

➔​ Multimedia Devices

➔​ Pointing Devices
-​ The mouse is the most popular pointing device.

-​ Track Ball is similar to the mouse except it has a larger ball to track
movement on top of the device. This is mostly used with netbooks,
chromebooks and laptops.
 -​ Light Pen consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a
small tube which tracks movement when the pen is pressed. This is
mainly used for drawing as well as selecting from menus.

-​ Joystick moves the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick

having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The joystick
can be moved in all four directions. This is more suited for playing
games because of the wide range of movements.

➔​ Terminals

➔​ Source Data Entry

➔​ Biometric Devices
-​ A biometric input device measures a unique physical characteristic of
a person. Biometric devices are usually used for security purposes.
Biometric devices provide a very reliable way of identifying people.

-​ The Fingerprint Scanner is the most common biometric device used to

input a person’s fingerprint into a computer.

-​ Iris Scanner is another biometric input device which uses

sophisticated cameras to input a description of a person’s iris (the
coloured part of the eye).

-​ A Sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input

from the physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat,
motion, moisture, pressure etc.
 TYPICAL APPLICATIONS FOR INPUT DEVICES

DEVICES APPLICATIONS

Keyboards Input of grades of students for a

report, inputting data into a database,
etc.

POS Terminals Supermarkets, stores, etc.

ATM Form of transaction requests

(withdrawals, deposits, etc.)

Mouse Can be used to make selections on the

screen and even the playing of games.

Joystick Control cursor motion/movement on the

screen for the playing of computer
games.

Tablet Restaurant/Point of Sale Terminals,

Public Information Systems and
Automated Teller Machine.

OMR Grading or marking multiple-choice

examination answer sheets,
questionnaires, etc.

OCR Processing of utility bills.

Barcode Reader Supermarkets and some libraries.

Biometric Systems Used for organizations and the

protection of important data or files.

Digital Cameras Used for capturing images or for short

 films.

Touch Screen Public Information Systems (PIS),

Restaurant/Point of Sale Terminals and
Automated Teller Machine

MICR Processing of cheques.

Sensors Used to measure heat, light, sound,

movement and pressure.

Webcam Used for skyping and video

conferencing

OUTPUT DEVICES
★​ An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another
device or user. Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in
the form of audio or visual. Thus, most output devices used by humans are in
these categories. The categories can be further sub-divided into soft copy
or hard copy.
★​ Hard copy devices get output onto permanent media such as paper or
microfilm, while soft copy devices are devices that get information to a
computer monitor or other temporary output devices that you can see or
hear but not necessarily touch (intangible).

CATEGORIES OF OUTPUT DEVICES:

★​Hard Copy
➢​ Printer
-​ Printer is another output device which provides visual output to
the user in the form of hard copy - on paper or canvas.
-​ Impact Printer - which produces their output, when the
printing mechanism presses against a ribbon which then hits the
paper. Examples consist of Dot Matrix, Daisy Wheel and
Band/Train Printer.

➔​ A dot matrix printer (DMP) is a type of printer which

uses pins impacting an ink ribbon to print. These printers
are generally considered outdated, as they cannot create
high-quality prints and are costly as well.

➔​ A Daisy Wheel printer that produces letter-quality

types. To print a character, the printer rotates the disk
until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a
hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an
ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on the
paper. Daisy printers have become obsolete due to the
development of more modern type printers like laser
printers.

➔​ Band printer is a type of impact printer in which the font

– characters and timing marks – is etched on a steel band.
The operating principle, involving horizontal movement of
the font, is like that of the earlier chain printer and train
printer.

-​ Non - Impact Printer - These are faster, quieter and produce

better quality than impact printers. Characters and images are
formed without the printing mechanism making any direct
contact with the paper.

➔​ An inkjet printer is a computer peripheral that produces

hard copy by spraying ink onto paper. A typical inkjet
printer can produce a copy with a resolution of at least
 300 dots per inch (dpi). Some inkjet printers can make
full color hard copies at 600 dpi or more.

➔​ A laser printer is a popular type of personal computer

printer that uses a non-impact (keys don't strike the
paper) photocopier technology. After the drum is
charged, it is rolled in toner, a dry powder type of ink.
The toner is transferred onto a piece of paper and fused
to the paper with heat and pressure.

➔​ A thermal printer is a printer that makes use of heat in

order to produce the image on paper. Due to quality of
print, speed, and technological advances it has become
increasingly popular and is mostly used in airline, banking,
entertainment, retail, grocery, and healthcare industries.
They are also quite popular in creating labels owing to
speed of printing.
➢​ 3D Printers
-​ 3D Printing is an additive manufacturing process that creates a
physical object from a digital design. There are different 3D
printing technologies and materials you can print with, but all
are based on the same principle: a digital model is turned into a
solid three-dimensional physical object by adding material layer
by layer. Every 3D print starts as a digital 3D design file – like
a blueprint – for a physical object. Available materials also vary
by printer type, ranging from plastics to rubber, sandstone,
metals and alloys - with more and more materials appearing on
the market every year.

➢​ Plotter
-​ A plotter is a computer vector graphic printer that gives a hard
copy of the output based on instructions from the system.
Plotters are widely used to print designs of things such as cars,
 ships and buildings on a piece of paper using a pen. Plotters are
different from a printer in that they are more precise, and
they are most commonly used in engineering, where precision is
mandatory. They are also more expensive than ordinary
printers. A plotter is also known as a graph plotter.

➢​ Microfilm/Microfiche
-​ Microfilming, also called microphotography, consists in the
reduction of images to such a small size that they cannot be
read without optical assistance. This amazing photographic
compression often results in a ninety-nine percent saving of
space.

★​Soft Copy
➢​ Audio Output Devices
-​ The term "audio output device" refers to any device that
attaches to a computer for the purpose of playing sound, such
as music or speech. These fall under the category of soft copy
output as it is not a physical version of the information
outputted.

-​ Speakers are the most common type of audio output device. On

laptops and other mobile computing devices, speakers are
usually built in. External speakers can attach to a computer
using a variety of audio plugs, or they can attach using a USB
connection.

-​ Earphones are another type of audio output device. Variations

on the headphone concept include ear buds, which fit inside the
ear, and headsets, which include both headphones and a
microphone.
 -​ Headphones - a device that converts electrical energy into
sound waves and is worn over the ear.

➢​ Visual Output Devices

-​ Monitors and projectors are two of the most familiar visual
output devices used with a computer.

-​ Monitors - Monitors present information in a digital form on

screen. There are two main types of monitors which include:
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

-​ Projectors - This device has its own built-in lenses and light
source and connects directly to computer, television, video/DVD
player and video camcorder. Images from these devices are
projected through the projector onto a screen or wall.
 STORAGE

PRIMARY STORAGE

●​ Primary storage is the first stage of storage that is used in your computer
system (Memory). However data or information cannot be saved in this stage
of storage. They are two types of primary storage, namely:
➔​ RAM
➔​ ROM
*Primary storage is also called main memory or memory.

❖​ RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

-​ This is temporary memory that is immediately used and quickly accessed by
the computer’s CPU when the computer performs any process/task. When
you use different programs or applications on a computer, the data
(instructions for the programs or applications) stored in RAM can change as
needed. RAM is volatile memory because it relies on power to store data. As
soon as you turn the computer off or the power supply is interrupted
anything stored on RAM is lost; hence RAM cannot be used for long term
storage. Varieties of RAM include:
➢​ Dynamic RAM - The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be
constantly refreshed (reenergized) or it will lose its contents.
➢​ Static RAM -SRAM (static RAM) is random access memory (RAM)
that retains data bits in its memory as long as power is being supplied.

❖​ READ ONLY MEMORY

-​ This contains permanent, non-volatile information which is not lost or
changed when power to the computer is turned off. This information, also
 known as the basic input/output (BIOS), is needed to start up the computer
and access the operating system. ROM can be accessed but not changed. The
contents of ROM are created when the chip is manufactured. Variations of
ROM include:
1)​ PROM - Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is read-only memory
(ROM ) that can be modified once by a user.
2)​ EPROM - Erasable Programmable read-only memory whose contents
can be erased by ultraviolet light or other means and reprogrammed
using a pulsed voltage.
3)​ EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
(EEPROM), with the help of an electric field, is erasable and
reprogrammable, which may be reprogrammed a million times.
Additionally, to perform a rewrite, EEPROM chips must be completely
erased, unlike other read-only memory (ROM) models.

PRIMARY STORAGE SPECIFICATION

Understanding the technical specifications associated with RAM helps you

determine the capacity, type and speed your computer can use.

Capacity: The capacity of RAM is commonly measured in gigabytes (GB), though

older or low-end computers may measure maximum RAM in megabytes (MB). Some
computers have two slots to install memory, others have four and some have even
more.

Type: Multiple variat of Double Data Rate (DDR) memory technology are used in
various computers. DDR means that it transfers data twice per clock cycle. There
are , DDR2 and DDR3 memory. If your computer requires DDR3 memory, DDR2
memory won’t work.
DDR
Speed: Memory speed is frequently denoted by the memory type followed by a
number that indicates the peak transfer rate of that type of memory. Consider
this example of a memory specification: 1GB DDR2-800 SDRAM. 1GB indicates the
memory capacity, DDR2 is the type of memory and 800 is the speed.

SECONDARY STORAGE

●​ Secondary storage is where all data or information is stored for as long as

you wish, these devices include but are not limited to flash drives, CD’s and
Hard Drives.
●​ Secondary storage, also called auxiliary or backup storage, is used to store
data and instructions when they are not being processed.

STORAGE DEVICE VERSUS MEDIA

-​ Media refers to the physical hardware on which a computer keeps data,
instructions and information for future use. E.g. Hard disk, CD/DVD, Floppy
disk, etc.
-​ Devices, records and retrieves data, instructions and information to and
from the storage media. E.g. Hard disk drive, CD-ROM Drive, Floppy disk
Drive, etc.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICE

A comparison can be made amongst the variety of secondary storage devices in
respect to their portability, speed and capacity.
 ●​ Storage Capacity – This is referring to the amount of information
that a particular storage medium can hold.
●​ Access Speed – This refers to the average time needed to locate
data on a secondary storage device. Access time is measured in
milliseconds.
●​ Portability – This refers to the ease and accessibility of a device
to transfer information from one computer to another.

SEQUENTIAL VS DIRECT ACCESS

There are two main ways in which data can be accessed on a secondary storage
medium. They can be accessed directly or sequentially.
●​ Direct Access Storage- This is where any data can be accessed without
reading any other data items first (randomly).
●​ Sequential Access Storage – This is where all data between the read/write
head and the required data has to be passed over before the data can be
accessed.

UNITS OF STORAGE

Computers store and manipulate data in the form of electronic pulses.

●​ Bit – this is the smallest unit of storage in a computer. A bit is a single digit
represented as 1 or 0.
●​ Half (four byte) a byte is called a nibble.
●​ Byte (binary term)– a unit of storage capable of holding a single character. 1
byte is a combination of 8 bits.
●​ Kilobyte (KB) – this is 1000 bytes or 1024 bytes in actual terms.
●​ Megabyte (MB) – this is 1 million bytes or 1,048,576 bytes.
●​ Terabyte (TB) – this is 1 trillion bytes.
HARD DISK DRIVE SPECIFICATION

Hard drive specifications for computers are generally the easiest to​
understand. There are really only two numbers that are needed to know:​
capacity and speed.

Consider the following Hard disk specification: 160GB, 2.5 inch,​

5400RPM SATA HDD. The capacity of the drive is 160GB and SATA is​
the device interface. Additionally, but not required to be stated, 2.5 is​
the circumference of the disk platter and 5400RPM is the spindle speed​
of the drive.

Hard drive specifications for computers are generally the easiest to understand.
There are really only two numbers that are needed to know: capacity and speed.

Consider the following Hard disk specification: 160GB, 2.5 inch, 5400RPM SATA​
HDD. The capacity of the drive is 160GB and SATA is the device interface.
Additionally, but not required to be stated, 2.5 is the circumference of the disk
platter and 5400RPM is the spindle speed of the drive.
DEVICE INTERFACE

A computer must have the appropriate drive to use each secondary storage. This is
called the device interface, which is the link between a peripheral or storage
device and the computer. These include IDE, USB, SATA and SCSI.

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)

This is built in storage and is connected through the Integrated Drive Electronics
(IDE) while external storage or peripherals are connected through ports.

USB OR PLUG AND PLAY PORT

This is the most used interface to connect peripheral devices such as keyboards,
mouse and scanners. With this interface there is no need for physical device
configuration.

SCSI (SMALL COMPUTER SYSTEM INTERFACE)

Pronounced skuzzy, is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring

data between computers and peripheral devices and storage devices such as hard
disk drives.

SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

This interface replaced SCSI. SATA cables are thinner, more flexible and less
massive than ribbon cables. This is commonly used for connecting internal storage
devices.
 CLOUD STORAGE

CLOUD STORAGE VS LOCAL STORAGE

There are two primary backup solutions, namely local storage and cloud storage.
Both of them have their own pros and cons.

CLOUD STORAGE
Cloud (online) Storage refers to any program owned by a third party that allows
you to upload your data using the Internet.

ADVANTAGES

Cost Effectiveness
●​ You don’t have to own or maintain any of the hardware or software
associated with backup storage. You simply pay a monthly fee, to store your
data.

Flexibility
●​ Cloud storage systems are highly scalable, that is, you can have as much or
as little storage space as you need, and most providers allow you to add
storage capacity on demand.

Accessibility
●​ Data is stored on the cloud, namely online. Therefore, even if the internal
hard drive on your computer goes on strike, the data on the cloud can still be
intact and can be accessed from any connected device.

DISADVANTAGES
Speed
●​ Depending on the amount of data you have, creating a full backup to a cloud
storage platform can take a long time. Most local backup solutions are much
faster.

Security
●​ There are still security risks associated with remote storage solutions. No
data that traverses the internet is 100 percent safe from hackers and
malware.

Control
●​ For individuals or businesses with highly sensitive data, an inability to retain
complete control over the storage process can be a drawback with cloud
platforms.

LOCAL STORAGE
Local Storage includes physical hardware such as external hard drives, flash
drives, and CDs. As its name suggests, local storage is kept nearby.

ADVANTAGES

Security
●​ You can back your data as soon as you plug the drive, connecting it to your
computer.
●​ Many external hard drives come endowed with data backup software, which
will help you a lot in regular data backups.
●​ Once the drive is disconnected, it is safe from any malicious attacks that
can affect your infrastructure.
Speed
●​ The external hard drives connected with Firewire can work at blazing high
speed.

DISADVANTAGES

Accessibility and Disaster Recovery

●​ The most obvious disadvantage is its vulnerability. For instance, hard drive
failures can occur without any warnings due to physical damages, power
failures, mechanical failures or logical issues.
Flexibility
●​ With a local storage solution, the storage space you have on hand is all you’ve
got. If you need to increase your storage capacity, you’ll have to invest in
more hardware.
 SOFTWARE

WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
Software is the general name given to all programs (set of instructions) that

companies or individuals use to perform different tasks. Basically telling the

hardware what to do.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE

Software is classified into two main categories:

System Software

➢​ Operating System

➢​ Utilities

➢​ Translators

Application Software

➢​ General purpose

➢​ Specialize software

➢​ Custom-written

➢​ Integrated

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is used to solve end-user problems in completing certain

tasks,unlike system software which is concerned with the overall health and

maintenance of the computer system.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
These programs manage the resources of a computer system, automate its

operation, and make the writing, testing and debugging of users programs easier.

TYPES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

OPERATING SYSTEM
Is a set of programs that manages the computer hardware resources and provides

common services for application software. The primary resources it manages are:

●​ Processors

●​ Storage

●​ I/O devices

●​ Data

●​ Programs

●​ Security

PROGRAM LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS

People normally write programs in what are called high level languages (such as

Basic, Pascal, FORTRAN, or COBOL). Before the computer can run these programs,

they have to be translated into the binary code known as the machine language.

Each language needs its own translator. Language translators can be divided into

three broad classes namely: compilers, interpreters and assemblers.

UTILITY PROGRAMS
On a typical computer system, there are many routine functions and operations

which users may wish to perform. Utility programs perform tasks related to the​

maintenance of your computer’s health whether hardware or data.

●​ Disk Management – this may include disk defragmenter, which organizes files

on the disk drive so that the computer runs faster and more efficiently; disk

error checker, which examines files, folders and the platter surfaces of the

specified disk drive and corrects any errors detected; disk cleanup, which

clears a disk of unnecessary files.

●​ Backup – the process of copying and archiving data so it may be used to

restore the original after a data loss event, such as a natural disaster,

computer failure or even a virus.

●​ Data Recovery – is a process of salvaging inaccessible data from corrupted

or damaged secondary storage, removable media or files, when the data they

store cannot be accessed in a normal way.

●​ Data Compression – this involves encoding information using fewer bits than

the original representation

●​ Anti-virus programs – Checks for and removes viruses infecting the system

and also prevents viral infections.

TYPES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE

General Purpose
These are so called because they can be used for many reasons by people,

businesses and professionals. It is sometimes referred to as “off-the-shelf”. It is

often fairly cheap and reliable as it has been used and developed over the years.
For example, a word processor could be classed as general-purpose software as it

would allow a user to write a novel, create a restaurant menu or even make a

poster.

Special Purpose
These are designed for specific tasks or industries and do not have much use

beyond those tasks. For example, Peachtree (an accounting software used by

accountants) is a special purpose application. Sure, it adds and subtracts numbers

like a spreadsheet, but you can't use it to plan your monthly budget or create and

maintain accounting records.

Custom Written
This software is tailor made and is written for a few owners or users to perform

specific tasks. This software can be done by internal programmers or contracted

out to a software house/company. This is also called ‘tailor-made’. This could be

necessary because there is no ‘off the shelf’ package available.

Integrated Software
Integrated software is a collection of software especially created to work on

closely related programs. These are used in personal computers where the most

commonly used and most similar programs are grouped together in one application

in the form of a suite. One of the most well-known examples of an integrated

software suite is Microsoft Office, which comprises programs used in an office

environment. Integrated software is also known as an integrated software package.

Customized Software

This is general purpose software which has been modified to meet the needs of an

individual or organisation better. These packages are customized through the

writing of code or macros. Macros are short programs written to automate several

steps (used in excel or word). This is normally a keystroke or keystroke

combination to perform a predefined sequence of instructions.

 INTERFACE

What is an Interface?
— An interface or user interface is the means in which a person
controls a software application or hardware device. A good user
interface provides a "user-friendly" experience, allowing the user to
interact with the software or hardware in a natural and intuitive way.
The interaction between end-users and the computer is said to take
place at the “Human Computer Interface” (HCI) point. The term
“Human Computer Interface” is meant to cover all aspects of this
interaction, not just the hardware.

TYPES OF INTERFACES
— The user interface is made up of a hardware interface and software interface.

❖​ Hardware Interfaces
— Hardware interfaces would include the use of touch screens, monitors and
specialized keyboards. Braille keyboards, sensors and non-visual interface
compounds.

❖​ Software Interfaces
— The types of software interface which are listed below:
➔​ Command Driven Interfaces
➔​ Menu Driven Interface
➔​ Graphical User Interface

Note: In some situations, two different types of interfaces may be combined, for
example, a menu interface with command options.

➔​ Command Driven Interface

— One of the long-established methods by which a user can interact with
the computer is by the use of commands. Commands enable the user to
 quickly and simply instruct the computer what to do. However, they require
the user to already have knowledge of what commands are available, what
they do and the rules governing how they should be typed, so they are more
suited to experienced users than the end-user. A technical person, such as a
computer operator or programmer.

Advantages of Command Driven

1.​ Faster to use once you have learnt the commands.
2.​ For a computer programmer command driven interfaces are cheaper
to implement.

Disadvantages of Command Driven

1.​ It is sometimes difficult to remember all the commands, therefore,
users have to constantly refer to the software user manual.
2.​ The user is restricted to using only the keyboard as the interfacing
device, while with other interfaces a wide variety of input devices can
be used.
3.​ Commands must be entered at a special location on the screen and in a
set format.

➔​ Menu Driven Interface

— Menus provide another popular form of user interface. There are many
different alternative forms of menu. The simplest menus provide the user
with a number of options and a simple means of selecting between them. The
user is presented with a choice and therefore does not have to remember
any commands. The interface is there suitable for beginners and infrequent
users. All the user has to do is to make a choice.

➔​ Pull Down Menu

— Pull-down menus are a special type of menu used in windowing and
were briefly introduced. It is a menu displayed as a vertical list which
hangs from a horizontal bar on the screen in order to elicit a choice
from the user.

➔​ Pop Up Menu
— A special type of menu called a pop-up menu; an additional submenu
pops up as a selection is made. You can click anywhere on a given
document using the right-click mouse button to allow a pop-up menu to
appear.

Advantages of Menu Driven

1.​ The user is presented with a list of options to choose from, they do
not need to remember the commands.
2.​ Free from trying errors, because the user does not have to type the
commands
3.​ A wide variety of input devices can be used to interface with a menu

Disadvantages of Menu Driven

1.​ Several steps required to issue a command.
2.​ Once the user has learned the menu system it is bothersome to have
to wait on the package to present the questions before the commands
can be entered.
➔​ Graphical User Interface
-​ A Graphical User Interface (GUI, commonly pronounced, “guey”) is a
Human Computer Interface (HCI) based upon a graphical display.
GUIs are most commonly found on workstations or PCs fitted with
graphics adapters able to support high-resolution graphics.

-​ GUI is a variation of the menu-driven system of selecting commands

with the use of the mouse, and pointers along with the use of windows.

-​ Thus, this interface is often summarized using the acronym WIMP,

which stands for windows, icons, menus (“pop-up” and “pull-down”) and
pointers.

-​ A mouse is used to click on an icon to execute some operation or

select options from a pop-up or pull-down menu.

Advantages of GUIs
1.​ Its user friendliness results in less anxiety on the part of the user
2.​ Icons/symbols easier to recognise and provide the user with a context
3.​ Fewer command errors
4.​ Reduce typing
5.​ Convenient to use by a novice
 Disadvantages of GUIs
1.​ It may consume more screen space
2.​ For programmers the design of Graphical User Interface is more
complex
3.​ Increased use of computer memory can lead to slower processing

➔​ Hardware Interface
-​ Hardware interfaces are special devices with additional features that
will allow interaction processes for the user quite easier.
➢​ Touch screens

➢​ Specialized Keyboards - such special keyboards include:

★​ Ergonomic keyboards - these keyboards are shaped in a
particular manner that is more comfortable to use. This
can assist with the avoidance of injury that may occur
during repetitive usage of the keyboard like typing.

★​ Overlay keyboards - this keyboard replaces the

traditional keys with a flat touch-sensitive panel. These
keyboards are very useful for children and adults who
cannot manage a normal keyboard.

➢​ Braille keyboards - these are utilized by blind individuals.

★​ Non-visual interface components - examples of these
interfaces include speech synthesis and voice recognition.

★​ Sensor - this is quite useful in providing interfaces for

persons who cannot use standard devices such as
keyboards. A user with very limited movement can use a
device with a sensor which they can press with a finger
or a foot, or by moving their head.
 SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

WHAT IS SYSTEM SPECIFICATION?

-​ This is the specific internal parts that make up a system, which can vary
depending on its purpose.

SPECIFICATION INCLUDES
1.​ Processing Speed (CPU type and speed)
2.​ Memory (RAM)
3.​ Secondary Storage (capacity and speed)
4.​ Types of software
5.​ Input/output devices

All of these specifications would be related to a type of job/career. They are:

●​ Video game
●​ Web browsing
●​ Graphic design
●​ Video editing
●​ Desktop publishing

THE PROCESSOR

The processor is measured by its clock speed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz

(GHz). Hence, the faster the clock speed of the processor the faster is the
execution of an instruction, task or command you give the computer. Examples are
shown below of a few processors and their respective speeds.
●​ 1 GHz Pentium 4
●​ Pentium 4 processor 540 w/HT technology @2.8 GHz
●​ Intel Core Duo @2.0 GHz (which facilitates both 32 and 64 bits operating
systems)
 MEMORY
When we refer to random access memory/main memory we do not necessarily
speak about what speed it is measured in but rather its size. Its size is measured
in megabytes (MB) as well as gigabytes (GB) and similar to the processor’s clock
speed, it is better to have more memory as the better the memory the better the
performance of your computer. Examples are shown below of two types of memory
and their respective sizes.
●​ 2 GB SDRAM DDR (Double Data Rate) 2
●​ 16 GB DDR5

HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

In comparison to RAM, the main memory processing speed is faster than the hard
drive. Information is generally swapped between main memory and the hard drive.
The size of a hard drive is measured in gigabytes (GB) as well as terabytes (TB)
and the larger the hard drive capacity the more data and information can be
stored. Access time for the HDD is measured in milliseconds (ms). Examples of
hard disk drives and their respective sizes are shown below.
●​ 500 GB SATA Hard Disk Drive (5400RPM)
●​ 1 TB SATA Hard Disk Drive

SOFTWARE & INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

Depending on the purpose of the system the software used will have specific
hardware requirements.

In addition the user may have additional input or output devices attached to the
system to help them to perform their purpose.

SPECIFICATIONS NEEDED FOR A COMPUTER SYSTEM

➢​ Video Games
 -​ The hardware in your computer, primarily its CPU speed, amount of
RAM, and graphics card details. You can find this information in
different ways, including looking up your laptop’s specifications online.
The following shows you what you need to know:
1.​ The CPU type and speed, in GHz
2.​ The amount of RAM, in GB
3.​ The model of your computer’s graphics card and the amount of
RAM the graphics card has on-board.
Next, look up the system requirements for the game you want to run.
You’ll generally find this information on the game’s website or on the
site for whatever store is selling it.
Hardware used in gaming:
➔​ Controllers, joysticks, pedals, game pads, gaming keyboard,
laser mouse and headphones.

➢​ Graphic Design
-​ Once you’ve committed to becoming a serious graphic designer, you’ll
almost certainly want to upgrade your computer.
-​ Some key things to focus on:
1.​ Processor speed
2.​ Memory
3.​ Screen resolution
4.​ Hard Disk Drive

➢​ Video Editing
➢​ Desktop Publishing
-​ Processor power - A 32-bit or above processor is recommended.

-​ RAM (random access memory) - machines are obtainable with a

variety of RAM configurations. Two megabytes or higher is
probably a reasonable amount.

-​ Fixed disk drives - forty megabytes are the minimum amount

acceptable and more should be obtained. Not to be overlooked
is the speed of access to the data on the disk.

-​ The screen - With DTP, it is essential to have a screen which

can display data graphically. It is convenient (possibly
essential) to have a display which can show a whole A4 page, and
possibly two on the screen

-​ Monitor - you will need a high-resolution 19-inch monitor.

-​ The monitor and associated graphics card should be at the

IBM-standard video-graphics array (VGA) level or better.
-​ The capture of data from outside and its preliminary processing
includes OCR and image processing software. Examples of
packages include: word processing, painting, etc.
 TROUBLESHOOTING
What is Trouble Shooting?
Troubleshooting is the process of identifying and fixing problems. Computer
troubleshooting may involve hardware or software and can sometimes involve both
at the same time. The basic process of troubleshooting is to check the most
general possible problems first, and then gradually check for more specific
problems.

TROUBLESHOOTING THE MONITOR

●​ Check the monitor's brightness and contrast settings and ensure they are
turned to the most appropriate or highest settings.

●​ Test that your computer is working correctly by connecting a different

monitor that you are certain is working properly to your PC.

●​ Determine why your computer isn't sending information to your monitor; it

could be the computer or video card.

●​ Test your original monitor with a monitor data cable that you know is
working; it could be the cable.

●​ Check to make sure your monitor is on.

●​ Check for disconnected monitor power cable connections. Your monitor might
be working fine and your only problem may be a loose or unplugged monitor
power cable (including cable adapters).

●​ Check for disconnected monitor data cable connections. Again, your monitor
might be turning on without a problem but no information can get to it
because the cable that connects your monitor to your computer is
disconnected or loose.
TROUBLESHOOTING THE PRINTER

●​ Slow print time can be caused by a high-resolution setting, a memory issue,

and/or choice of drivers.

●​ Paper jam can be caused by misaligned papers. Start by removing the

jammed paper (don't tear the paper). Sometimes there may not be a jammed
paper; take the tray out and reposition it; always make sure the type of
paper being printed is supported by your printer.

●​ Poor image quality or faded type can be due to supplies or hardware issues.
Check your on-screen printer settings and toner cartridges to ensure you
have enough ink available or damages. If your document(s) have smudge
marks, print several blank sheets of paper and they will eventually fade
away.

●​ When the Printer does not print at all, check that you sent the print job to
the right printer; Check that there’s enough paper and the correct kind of
paper in the tray. Also ensure your printer is on and all cables are secured.
Both USB- and network-connected computers require that the print driver
be installed on the computer you’re printing from. Lastly, you could try to
restart the printer and or the computer a few times.

TROUBLESHOOTING THE BATTERY

●​ Check the AC adapter brick and verify that any removable cords are fully
inserted. Next, make sure that the battery is properly seated in its
compartment, and that there is nothing wrong with either the battery or
laptop contact points. Try plugging the power cord into a different outlet to
see if you've got a short or a blown fuse.
●​ Check the integrity of the battery by removing it entirely and try plugging in
the laptop. If the laptop powers on properly, the problem is likely a
burnt-out battery.

●​ Check the power cable for any shorts by feeling along the length of the
cord, bending and flexing as you go, to check for any kinks or breaks. Check
the ends for any broken connections, such as plugs pulling loose or spots.

●​ Check the computer’s settings in the Control Panel. Open up the Power
Options. Be on the lookout for incorrect settings for the battery, display,
and sleep options. For example, your battery settings may cause trouble if
you set the computer to shut down when the battery level drops too low or
set the low battery level at too high a percentage.
 INFORMATION PROCESSING

Is the set of activities, done in a sequence by which data produce information.

These activities are called processing activities. These processing activities
include:
●​ collecting
●​ collating
●​ analyzing
●​ presenting
●​ disseminating of information
These activities are also known as the sub-processes of an information system.
Information systems can be either manual or computerized, or a combination of
both.

Many of the devices we use today involve the processing and interpretation of a
particular input (data) such as an electric kettle, where once the water is boiled at
a desired temperature the sensor will activate a switch to have the kettle turn off.
The use of an ATM machine, where based on your input you can either make a
deposit, do a withdrawal, top up your phone with credit etc.

SOURCE DOCUMENT
Is any document where its content (data that has been captured) is keyed in by an
employee into a computer system. Data can be ascertained by two means namely: by
machine or human readable documents. When the necessary data has been entered
on a form for example, a questionnaire, it is normally keyed into a computer system
for future use and update.
SOURCES OF DATA AND INFORMATION
-​ We will consider sources of information under three main headings as follow:

➢​ PRINT MATERIALS
★​ Books :- Reference Books -
Encyclopedias,
Dictionaries,
Directories
★​ Textbooks
★​ General Fiction and Non- Fiction
★​ Periodicals :- Journals
:- Magazines
:- Newspapers
★​ Pamphlets

➢​ ELECTRONIC SOURCES

★​ Local Sources :- CD ROMs

:- Electronic Databases
★​ Remote Sources :- Online Databases
:- World Wide Web
:- Digital Libraries

➢​ PERSONAL CONTACTS
★​ Word of Mouth
★​ Contact by mail (incl. e-mail)
★​ Interviews
 ★​ Observations

DOCUMENT TYPES

Human - Readable Documents

-​ These are documents that are normally filled out by humans and can be read
by humans. This document is usually built and structured to facilitate the
filling out of data by hand.

Machine - Readable Documents

-​ This type of document is one such means of alleviating some of the
challenges of human readable documents, where instead of filling out the
data by hand, the form is marked by some means.

Turnaround Documents
-​ A turnaround document is considered to be both a human-readable and
machine-readable document as a machine creates the document and the
human will add information to the document created. The data added can be
further treated as new data to be keyed in back into the system.

Examples of human readable, machine readable and turnaround documents such as

multiple choice papers, utility bills, questionnaires, prescription forms etc.

Evaluation of Information

Received
Information received from either electronic or manual sources must be evaluated
and verified for its authenticity, currency, relevance and bias, which determines
its quality. The degree of confidence you have based on the credibility of an
information source will ultimately determine whether you use information from
that source in decision making. When determining which information sources
should be used and whether the information found is appropriate to use, it is
important to consider:
 ●​ task requirements
●​ quality of the content

Various criteria can be used to evaluate the quality of what has been found. The
following are some of the characteristics of information sources:

●​ Accuracy – the correctness of items and the completeness of the

information
●​ Reliability – the consistency with which the information is accurate.
Information that is consistently correct is reliable.
●​ Comprehensibility – the ability of the data to be made useful. This type of
data one can make sense of.
●​ Timeliness – the availability of information to users in time to make relevant
decisions. Data and information have a lifespan during which they are useful.
At the end of the lifespan, the information is no longer useful in decision
making. The lifespan involves generation (or collection) of data,
transformation of data into information and reporting information to the
user in time for appropriate decision making.
●​ Relevance – the appropriateness of information to the solution of a problem
or decision making.
●​ Interpretation – the same information is given different meanings by
different users.
●​ Security - the accessibility of data by authorized users and the prevention
of any unauthorized users from accessing the data. The security of
information determines its availability to users for problem solving and
decision making.
●​ Confidentiality – the availability of data only to a very restricted set of
users. It must not be viewed by anyone for whom it is not intended. The data
must be secure to ensure its confidentiality.
●​ Value – the usefulness of information to facilitate problem solving and
decision making and to enable the organization to gain advantage over its
 competitors. Since information has its value, it is a saleable commodity and it
is shareable. It may be presented on different media and in a variety of
formats.
●​ Distortion – the presentation of data to induce a particular presentation.
Data may also be disguised in order to discourage certain interpretations.

ERRORS
Types of Errors:

Transmission Error
This is when data received by a computer or system is not the same as what was
sent by another computer, which could be as a result of an electrical fault or faulty
cabling as well as the computer used to send the data.
Example
yyyyyoooo is transferred as
x&*`^$yyoo

Typographical Errors
Purple Gradient background
These are errors made typically by humans when we are typing data. This can also
be said to be an accidental error (errors that are not made on purpose). For
example, typing in the wrong date of birth.
Example
I forgot my password to
myf acebook account.

Transposition Errors
Purple Gradient background
These are errors made when numbers or characters are placed in the wrong order.
An example of this could be when we are typing a date of birth for someone who
was born on the 12th of September 1998 and you typed 09/12/98 instead of the
12/09/98.
Example: I swa my favourite movie today.
 DATA VERIFICATION AND DATA VALIDATION

Some errors can also be considered to be deliberate where errors are made by
humans intentionally for personal gain or just to create disruption. For example,
someone may falsify a document to gain acceptance in an institution or for a
scholarship.

There are two ways of preventing errors made by humans and they are data
verification and data validation. Data verification is a process carried out by
humans, whereas data validation is an automatic process carried out by software.

Data Verification
The errors we examined in the previous lesson would warrant the need for data
verification. Data verification is the process of checking for errors that might
have been entered in the computer from a source document or when data is copied
from one medium or device to another. Two methods of data verification are
double entry and proof reading/visual checks.

●​ Double entry
The double entry method is the process of entering data more than once
using a program that checks each second entry against the first. If the data
entered is not the same it will not get processed and the system will allow
for the re-entry of data to ensure the data entered is accurate. An example
of this process would be when you are required to enter your password twice
when setting up your email to confirm your password.

●​ Proofreading
Proofreading on the other hand checks the data entered against the data on
the original source document. This method can be time consuming as it
requires the user to read the information from the source document and
checks it against what was entered in the system.
 ●​ Visual checks
Visual checks utilize on-screen prompts. When a set of data is entered is
redisplayed on the screen. The user is prompted to read it and give a
confirmation that the data entered is correct. If the data is incorrect the
data is re-entered.

Data Validation
Data validation employs several ways of checking for the accuracy and
completeness of data. Let us examine the different methods you can use to
validate data.

●​ Range checks
Range check ensures that the data entered is within a particular range.
Examples of such a check would be data pertaining to the number
corresponding to the months of a year and not exceeding the number of
hours in a day.

●​ Reasonableness checks
Reasonableness checks ensure that data is reasonable, that is, the data
entered is realistic. For example, a student enrolled in the first form with a
particular date of birth, his or her age when calculated by the computer
system should correspond (say age 11). Thus, a child who is seventeen years
old cannot be linked to a date of birth younger.

●​ Data type checks

Data type checks, also called character checks, ensure that the right type
of data has been entered. They ensure that if you intend to enter numbers,
only numbers are allowed to be entered and if only characters or symbols
are intended to be entered then only that type of data is allowed. For
example, if you are storing someone’s name only letters would be entered,
values would not be allowed.

●​ Inconsistency checks
 Consistency/inconsistency checks compare data you have entered against
other data you have entered. If you enter a person’s year of birth and their
age in separate fields, a consistency check will ensure that the two fields
correspond with each other. Thus, if the age of an individual is not in line
with his/her date of birth then this would be considered to be inconsistent.

●​ Presence checks
This check ensures that required data is always present. For example, if in a
database information is stored on a set of employees and each employee
must have an id number. A presence check will ensure that the id field is not
left blank. On the other hand, there are cases where some fields in a
database may be optional, for example, not everybody may have a house
number but they have a cell phone. So, the field which stores a customer
house number may be left blank.

●​ Format Check
A format check is a validation check which ensures that entered data is in a
particular format. The format that data must be in is specified using an
input mask. The input mask is made up of special characters which indicate
what characters may be typed where.

●​ Length check
Most databases will automatically perform length checks on any entered
data. The length check is a validation check which ensures that the data
entered is no longer than a specified maximum number of characters.
 FILE ORGANIZATION AND ACCESS

File organization and access relates to the use of records, fields and files stored in
a database. You would have been exposed to all three terms when you did the
productivity tool: database in class.

A file has three important characteristics and they are as follows:

●​ A file can either be permanent or temporary
●​ The manner in which the records of the file are organized on a secondary
storage device (file organization)
●​ The manner in which records are accessed

METHODS OF FILE ORGANIZATION AND ACCESS

●​ Sequential file ordering

This is where records are stored in a logical or sorted order. Records can be
arranged according to name, date, size or any other field in ascending order.

●​ Indexed Sequential file ordering

Indexed Sequential file ordering refers to storing records in a sequential
manner, but with an index/key added for quick access to specific records.
This is ideal for situations where specific records need to be retrieved
frequently and efficiently.

●​ Serial file ordering

This is similar to sequential file ordering, except the records are not stored
in any particular order (unordered). They are simply stored one after the
other as they are added, similar to new items on a shopping list where as you
go along you add what you need. This type of ordering is often used to
capture transactions as they occur during the day.

●​ Random file/Direct ordering

Files are stored in any order using a key. The file is organized like a
one-dimensional array where each array element has an index/subscript to
 mark its location. Random access or direct access allows you to access the
record you want without having to go through any others unlike sequential
access. The computer locates the data item using the indices.

NETWORK

What is Data Communication?

This is the transmission of data and information between two or more computers.
For example home computer users may want to access the Internet.

What is a network?
A network is a group of devices called nodes that uses a set of common
communication protocols over digital interconnections to share data and resources.
Uses of networks include sharing data over the internet.

There are three (3) types of networks. They are :

●​ Local Area Network - A LAN describes a group of microcomputers
connected within a small geographical area on one site, such as a building or
school.

●​ Metropolitan Area Network - A MAN is a smaller version of a WAN that

spans an area covered by an average to large sized city.

●​ Wide Area Network - A WAN is similar to a LAN, but geographically spread

over a wider area to link other LANs. A typical example of a WAN is the
internet, linking thousands of computers, workstations and networks across
the globe by a wide variety of cabled or wireless communication media and
devices.

LEVELS OF PRIVACY

Internet – a global public network consisting of many smaller networks connected

together.

Intranet –a private network that belongs to an organization and only accessible by

the employees.
Extranet - allowing part of an intranet to be accessible to partners outside of an
organization over the internet.

Types of Wireless Technologies

 ●​ Bluetooth - is an open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short
distances from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks.

●​ Wi-Fi – a protocol used to securely connect devices over the internet using
wireless signals.

●​ Hotspot - a physical location that offers shared internet access over a

wireless LAN.

Explain the following types of networks:

●​ CAN
●​ PAN
●​ WLAN
●​ VPN

WHAT ARE MOBILE NETWORKS?

Mobile networking also known as cellular networks refers to technology that can
support voice and/or data network connectivity using wireless, via a radio
transmission solution. They are made up of “cells” that connect to one another and
to telephone switches or exchanges. The most familiar application of mobile
networking is the mobile phone. In the past, wireless communications predominantly
used circuit switching to carry voice over a network. However, more recently both
voice and data are being transmitted over both circuit-switched and
packet-switched networks.

GENERATION OF MOBILE NETWORKS

First Generation (1G) 1981 – NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) launch

●​ The first mobile systems were based on analog transmission. They had a low
traffic density of one call per radio channel (only allow calls in one country).
 ●​ Poor voice quality as it had a maximum capacity of 2kbps.

●​ They used insecure and unencrypted transmission, which led to the spoofing
of identities (spoofing is pretending to be someone else).

Second Generation (2G) 1991 – GSM launch

●​ The second generation of mobile systems was based on digital transmission
with several different standards including GSM.

●​ 2G was the technology that ultimately allowed data services such as SMS
and MMS to become prolific on mobile phones later in the decade.

●​ It only has a maximum speed of 50 kilobits per second.

Second to Third Generation Bridge (2.5G) 2000 – GPRS launch

●​ The introduction of GPRS is seen as an extra period of mobile networking
development, between 2G and 3G.

●​ GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a data service, which enables mobile
devices to send and receive e-mails and picture messages.

●​ It allows very popular operating speeds of up to 115kbit/s, which has been

increased to a maximum of 384kbit/s by using EDGE (Enhanced Data rates
for Global Evolution.

Third Generation (3G) 2003 – First UK 3G launch

●​ The third generation of mobile systems unifies different mobile technology
standards and uses higher frequency bands for transmission and Code
 Division Multiple Access to deliver data rates of up to 2Mbit/s to support
multimedia services (MMS: voice, video and data).

●​ This generation saw the introduction of broadband internet access to mobile

phones.

Russian 3D Avant Garde Shapes Olga Rozanova Flat Composition

Generation of Mobile Networks

Fourth Generation (4G) 2007+

4G technology is qualified with higher data rate, spectral efficiency, security,

intelligence, flexibility, higher transmission quality and service quality.

LTE is a 4G technology developed for GSM Network and it is the first 4G

Technology used in mobile phones across the world.

It is a high-speed data transferor for mobile phones with 299.6 Mbps (Megabits
per Second) download speed and 75.4 Mbps up load speed.

Generation of Mobile Networks

Fourth Generation (4G) 2007+

●​ 4G technology is qualified with higher data rate, spectral efficiency,
security, intelligence, flexibility, higher transmission quality and service
quality.

●​ LTE is a 4G technology developed for GSM Network and it is the first 4G

Technology used in mobile phones across the world.
●​ It is a high-speed data transferor for mobile phones with 299.6 Mbps
(Megabits per Second) download speed and 75.4 Mbps up load speed.

SUITABILITY OF MOBILE NETWORKS TO VARIOUS APPLICATIONS

●​ Airlines - Various airlines now allow passengers to access their boarding

passes as two-dimensional bar codes that can be displayed on their smart
phones and scanned at boarding gates and security checkpoints.

●​ Automotive – Some companies such as Autonet Mobile offer a device that

turns a car into a Wi-Fi hotspot. On the horizon are cell phones that start
the car or adjust the seats.

●​ Banking - Bigger screens and better browsers are driving millions of smart
phone users to online banking. What’s more, banks report the first wave of
mobile users have higher rates of customer satisfaction and are more likely
to provide referrals than traditional customers. Online banking adds
convenience without asking people to spend money by incurring bank charges
inside the bank.

●​ Energy – many homes are now equipped with smart meters, providing utilities
and homeowners with greater ability to control energy usage and costs.

●​ Education - cell phones have been used in schools to help improve student’s
math skills by using smart phones to solve real-world applications of math
concepts presented partly in videos and other multimedia formats.

●​ Teachers can utilize the use of phones for playing educational games,
brainstorming by getting students input via their cell phones etc. Many
schools still see cell phones as a distraction to students but now, teachers
are realizing that while not every student has a laptop, every student is
mobile, so you need to go where they already are.
●​ Hotels - many hotels such as Marriott International have seen an increase in
revenue after introducing mobile web bookings. The on-the-go bookings were
particularly appealing to travelers. Cell phones are also used to send specials
and coupons to hotel guests via text messages.

●​ Publishing – e-books have become very popular especially through mobile

networks. In Japan, half of the top 10 best-selling books in 2007 were
eBooks. With the introduction of devices like Kindle2, the American book
industry is set for a new era of digital, mobile readers.

●​ Journalism - mobile reporting is defined as generating reports using mobile

phone cameras and digital cameras. Most of the mobile reports are citizen
generated. Whenever an incident happens, citizens capture live and send it
to reporting authorities or share it on social media. Social media i.e. Twitter
and Facebook are the most common and largest means of spreading any news
or incident.

●​ Before the advent of these platforms, only radio and news channels were the
basic source of incident reporting. Nowadays, more content related to any
incident can be found on the internet rather than TV channels and radio
channels. Mobile technology has changed broadcast journalism rapidly.
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

What is Transmission Media?

Transmission media refers to the physical materials along which data travels from
one point to another. The media used is dependent on the distance, speed and
volume of data.

TYPES OF CABLED TRANSMISSION

TYPES OF WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

 Functions of network devices

●​ Hub - Is built into a device and provides physical connection of a computer

system and another network device.

●​ Switch - Is a central device used to connect all the devices in a network and
sends out the data it receives to all devices connected to it.

●​ Network interface card - Is a central device used to connect all devices in a

network and is more advanced than a hub by determining which device
receives a signal.

●​ Router - Is a device that connects two or more different networks.

●​ Modem - Is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over a

network by converting the data between two formats.
 Key web terminologies

●​ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - This is a set of rules used to govern the
sending and receiving of files on the Internet. It facilitates the transfer of
larger files between your hard drive and servers connected to the internet.
One of the special features of FTP is that you can continue to download and
upload files interruption, beginning where you left off.

●​ Upload - This is the process of reading data from a user’s computer storage
and sending it to another computer over communication channels.

●​ Download - This is the process where programs or data are transferred over
communications channels, from a computer and stored on media located at
the user’s computer.

●​ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - This is a protocol used to request

and transmit files, especially web pages and web page components, over the
internet or other computer network.

●​ Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) - This is a markup language used to

structure text and multimedia documents used extensively on the World
Wide Web. Hypertexts are electronic documents that can contain text,
tables, graphics, sounds and links called hyperlinks, to other documents.

●​ World Wide Web - This is just one component of the internet. It is a

collection of text and media documents called web pages, some of which are
linked.

●​ Web Server - This computer delivers web pages. When a request is made to
access a website, the request is sent to the web server. The server then
fetches the page and sends it to your browser.
●​ Web Browser - This program allows users to view and explore information on
the World Wide Web. Examples of popular browsers are Microsoft Internet
Explorer and Mozilla Firefox.

●​ Uniform Resource Locator - A URL is a unique address (file name) obtained

by each page on the World Wide Web. It is the address of an internet file.
For example: [Link]

●​ Hyperlink - A hyperlink is an element in an HTML document that links to

either another portion of the document or to another document altogether.
On webpages, hyperlinks are usually colored purple or blue and are
sometimes underlined.

●​ Web page - A web page or webpage is a document, commonly written in

HTML, that is viewed in an Internet browser. A web page can be accessed by
entering a URL address into a browser's address bar. A web page may
contain text, graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages and files.

●​ Email - Email (electronic mail) is the exchange of computer-stored messages

from one user to one or more recipients via the internet. Emails are a fast,
inexpensive and accessible way to communicate for business or personal use.
 PROBLEM SOLVING

Steps in problem solving:

1.​ Define the problem;
2.​ Propose and evaluate solutions;
3.​ Determine the most efficient solution;
4.​ Develop the algorithm; and,
5.​ Test and validate the solution

Defining the problem

Defining the problem is a way to help the programmer understand what he or she is
required to do. It involves breaking down the problem into three key components
using the defining diagram.

Propose and evaluate solutions

Determine the possible options and identify what information is needed to solve
the problem. There are often several ways to solve a problem.

Determine the most efficient solution

Choosing the most efficient solution involves deciding which solution provides the
best answer to the problem. This might be the quickest solution or it might be the
cheapest.

Develop the algorithm

Now that the solution has been chosen, we will now create a way to implement this
in the form of an algorithm.

Test and validate the solution

Finally, we need to make sure a solution works as well as planned.