📋 Practice Forms
1. Form No. 1
2. Form No. 2 (harder)
😀 Good Luck People
Good
Luck
Everyone
🧫 Biology
🌱 Chapter 1 - Photosynthesis and the
carbon cycle
Chapter 1 - Photosynthesis and The Carbon Cycle
How do plants make food?
Plants make their own food by photosynthesis in which
they use -
●Water, which they get from the soil
●Carbon dioxide from the air
●Energy which they get from the sunlight
The energy in sunlight is captured by a green pigment
called chlorophyll which is inside some of the cells in
the leaves of plants.
Plants then use this energy to combine water and
carbon dioxide into a chemical reaction.
Word Equation -
Water + Carbon Dioxide —> Glucose + Oxygen
Chemical Equation -
6H2O + 6CO2 —> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Why is photosynthesis important?
Photosynthesis is important because it allows plants to
use sunlight to make glucose, which stores energy. This
energy passes through food chains when animals eat
plants. Photosynthesis also produces oxygen as a waste
product, which is released into the air and is needed by
plants and animals for respiration.
Exercise 1.2 - More about photosynthesis
Chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight which
helps carbon dioxide and water react. Chlorophyll is
kept inside chloroplasts, which means that
photosynthesis happens inside chloroplasts. Not all of
the cells have chloroplasts, so not all can
photosynthesise.
Inside a Leaf..
Carbon Dioxide diffuses into the leaf from the air.
There are tiny holes in the leaf that allow gases to
diffuse in and out of the leaf. The holes are called
stomata. The gases can easily diffuse through the air
spaces between the cells in the leaf.
Stomata - A stomata is a tiny hole in the lower epidermis.
These holes let carbon dioxide from the air get into the leaf.
Lower epidermis - The lower epidermis protects the cells
inside the leaf.
Upper epidermis - The upper epidermis protects the cells
inside the leaf.
Vein - A vein carries water to the cells in the leaf.
Spongy Layer - The spongy layer has a lot of air [Link]
cells in the spongy layer do a small amount of
photosynthesis.
Waxy Layer - A waxy layer on the leaf surface stops the
leaf cells from drying out.
Palisade layer - The palisade layer contains cells that do
most of the photosynthesis.
Magnesium - Magnesium is needed to make the
green pigment, chlorophyll. If a plant does not
contain enough magnesium, the leaves will look
yellow. Farmers can test the soil in their fields to
find out exactly which minerals are lacking in each
part of the field. This tells the farmer where
fertilizer is needed and where it is not.
Nitrate - Nitrate contains nitrogen [Link] are
needed so that the plant can convert carbohydrates
to protein. Proteins are essential for making new
cells so the plant can grow well. Without sufficient
nitrogen leaves die early and stay small. Nitrogen is
also needed to make chlorophyll.
Greenhouse Gases – Notes
1. Greenhouse Gases
●Carbon dioxide and methane are called greenhouse
gases.
●They trap heat in the atmosphere and help keep Earth
warm.
●Without carbon dioxide, Earth would be too cold to
support life.
Problem Today
● Humans burn fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas).
● Fossil fuels store carbon for millions of years.
● When burned, they release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
● This causes CO₂ levels to increase, which affects Earth’s
climate.
Climate Change in the Past
Climate
● Climate = long-term pattern of temperature, wind, and
rainfall on Earth.
●Earth’s climate has changed many times in the past.
Ice Ages
●The first known ice age happened about 2 billion
years ago.
●Earth has switched between:
○Warm periods – little or no ice at the poles.
○Cold periods (Ice Ages) – large ice caps at the
poles.
Snowball Earth
●About 650 million years ago, Earth may have been
almost completely covered in ice and snow.
●Scientists call this “Snowball Earth.”
●Sometimes called “Slushball Earth” because some ice
may have been melting.
●Scientists are still unsure what caused it.
●The continents were in different positions than today.
Asteroids Colliding With Each Other
About 470 million years ago, two asteroids collided
in [Link] collision created large amounts of
dust. The dust blocked sunlight from reaching
Earth. Less sunlight meant that the Earth
[Link] triggered an ice age where Ice caps
spread farther from the poles and sea levels fell.
Asteroids Colliding With Earth
● Around 67 million years ago, an asteroid hit Earth near
Mexico.
● The impact caused:
○ Huge explosion and shock waves
○ Very high temperatures
○Massive destruction near the impact site
Global Effects
●Rock and dust were thrown into the atmosphere.
●Sunlight was blocked → climate changed.
●A massive tsunami may have spread across Earth’s
oceans.
The decrease of sunlight due to the dust affected plants as
plants need sunlight to photosynthesise. Less sunlight
meant that photosynthesis for plants was harder, disrupting
food chains. The collision of asteroids led to a mass
extinction as many food chains were disrupted and many
animals went extinct.
Could other object collide with earth -
Objects in space that are smaller than asteroids are called
meteoroids. When meteoroids enter Earth’s surface they
are named meteors / shooting stars. The part of meteoroids
which collide with earth are called meteorites.
Starch Investigation
First take a beaker and put hot water in it.
Then take a leaf and place it in the hot water
for 1-2 minutes . Then take a test tube and
put the leaf in ethanol in the test tube. Then
put the test tube in the beaker. Lasty u have
to put a few drops of iodine solution on the
leaf and if it turns blue black then it means
that the leaf is photosynthesizing well and
has starch.
🪼 Chapter 4- Maintaining Life
1. Plants and Water
● Absorption: Water enters through root hair cells. These have a long, thin shape to
provide a large surface area for absorbing water and minerals (like magnesium and
nitrate).
● Transport: Water moves up the plant through xylem vessels. These are long, hollow
tubes made of dead cells.
● Transpiration: This is the loss of water vapor from the leaves. Water evaporates from
cell walls and diffuses out through tiny holes called stomata.
● Why plants need water:
○ Support: Keeps cells firm (turgid) so the plant doesn't wilt.
○ Transport: Carries dissolved minerals.
○ Cooling: Evaporation takes heat away from the leaves.
○ Photosynthesis: Water is a raw material used to make glucose.
2. Excretion in Humans
● Definition: Getting rid of waste materials that have been inside the body cells.
1. Note: Faeces is not excretion because it never actually enters the body's cells; it
just passes through the digestive tube.
● Main Excretory Products:
1. Carbon Dioxide: Made during respiration.
2. Urea: A poisonous waste made in the liver from excess protein.
3. Excess Water.
The Renal (Urinary) System
● Kidneys: Filter the blood to remove urea and excess water, creating urine.
● Ureters: Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
● Bladder: Stores urine.
● Urethra: The tube through which urine leaves the body.
3. Keeping a Fetus Healthy
A fetus (unborn baby) relies entirely on its mother for survival. Their blood systems come very
close but do not mix. Substances move between them by diffusion.
Diet and Health
● Protein: Needed for the fetus to grow and make new cells.
● Carbohydrates: Provide energy for both mother and fetus.
● Iron: Needed to make haemoglobin for healthy blood.
● Calcium: Essential for building strong bones and teeth.
● Vitamins: Vitamin A (vision/skin), C (immune system), and D (bone health) are vital.
Risks to Avoid
● Smoking: Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen in the blood, and nicotine is addictive and
damages blood vessels. This can lead to smaller, less healthy babies.
● Drugs/Alcohol: Most drugs pass from the mother's blood to the fetus. Even legal drugs
like aspirin should only be taken after medical advice.
🧬 Chapter 7 - Genes and Inheritance
Chromosomes - Chromosomes are thread-like
structures found inside the nucleus of cells. They are
made of DNA and proteins and carry genetic
information (genes) that controls how living
organisms grow, develop, and function.
Chromosomes are visible only with a microscope
when a cell is dividing and the cell has to be
coloured with a special stain.
Human Cells - 46 chromosomes
Fruit Fly Cells - 8 Chromosomes
Mango Trees - 40 Chromosomes
Fact :- Chromosomes look like a cross shape. This is
because each chromosome makes a copy of itself just
before dividing.
DNA - The genetic material in cells that carries
instructions for how a living organism grows and
functions.
Gene - A small section of DNA that controls a
specific trait. This is there on the chromosomes
Gametes -
Every human being began life as a single cell.
This cell was formed when a sperm cell joined
with an egg cell. Sperm and egg cells are
specialised cells called gametes. A sperm cell is
a male gamete and an egg cell is a female
gamete.
Sperm Cell - 23 Chromosomes
Egg Cell - 23 Chromosomes
Sperm cells are very small and active using
their tails to swim vigorously while egg cells
are much bigger than sperm cells and
cannot move by themselves. A human cell is
as big as a full stop.
Fertilisation -
Sperm cells have 23 chromosomes and egg
cells also have 23 chromosomes so when
they join together to form a new cell with 46
chromosomes. The joining of a sperm and
egg cell is called Fertilisation.
The new cell formed from the joining of
sperm and egg cells is called a zygote. All
humans began their life as a single cell like
the zygote containing 46 chromosomes.
Boy or Girl?
Sex chromosomes help determine whether a person
is male or female. If a person has 2 x chromosomes
XX then it is a female but if a person has one x and
one y XY then it is a male.
Female - XX
Male - XY
All egg cells contain one X chromosome. Remember
that gametes only have one set of chromosomes.
Sperm cells on the other hand have either one X
chromosome or one Y chromosome. So during
fertilisation one X chromosome joins either one
more X chromosome to form a girl or joins a Y
chromosome to form a boy. The chances of being a
boy and girl are equal.
Inheritance
Inheritance means passing on DNA from parents to
offspring.
Variation
The difference between individuals of the same
species is called variation.
7.4 Natural Selection
Explained by example -
In Africa, there were both long-necked and
short-necked animals. They used to eat plants, and
when the plants on the ground finished, only the
long-necked giraffes could feed, and short necks
died due to starvation. The long necks reproduced
more and passed their genes to their offspring,
increasing the population.
Bacteria are not resistant to antibiotics but some of
them are. These few bacterias survived and
reproduced passing their genes to their offspring so
that their offspring can also stay resistant to
bacteria. These are examples of Natural Selection.
🧪 Chemistry
🧪 Chapter 5 - Reactivity
Chapter 5 - Reactivity
Exercise 5.1 - Reactivity and displacement
Reactivity Series -
Potassium
Sodium
Lithium*
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminum
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Thermite Reaction - A thermite reaction is the
reaction between aluminum and iron oxide to form
aluminum oxide and iron. This reaction produces a
lot of heat making it an exothermic reaction and
the iron that is produced is in the form of molten. It
is useful in railway tracks to weld the rails with
high temperature. In order for this thermite
reaction to happen. The aluminum oxide and iron
need to be ignited. This is done by another
exothermic reaction of magnesium powder and
barium nitrate from which aluminum oxide and
iron get their energy to be started.
Aluminium + Iron Oxide —> Aluminium Oxide +
Iron
Furnace -
A furnace is a structure used to produce very high
temperatures for heating materials. In industries it
is often used to melt metals and extract metals from
their ore.
Blast Furnace-
Blast furnaces mainly take out iron from their ores.
They are placed in industrial areas.
📘 Displacement Using Carbon
🔹 1️⃣ What is Carbon Displacement?
Carbon is not a metal, but it can displace some
metals from their ores.
👉
👉
It removes oxygen from metal oxides.
This produces the metal.
🔹 2️⃣ What Is an Ore?
An ore is a rock that contains a metal
compound.
Example:
Iron ore mainly contains iron oxide.
🔹 3️⃣ Which Metals Can Carbon Displace?
Carbon can displace:
●Zinc
●Iron
●Tin
●Lead
These metals are below carbon in the reactivity
series.
🔹 4️⃣ Example: Iron Extraction
Iron oxide reacts with carbon at high temperatures.
Word Equation:
Iron oxide + Carbon → Iron + Carbon dioxide
This happens in a blast furnace.
🔹 5️⃣ What Happens in a Blast Furnace?
●Iron ore and coke (carbon) are added.
●Air is blown in to burn the coke.
●Very high temperatures are produced.
●Carbon removes oxygen from iron oxide.
●Molten iron collects at the bottom.
Exercise 5.3 - Salts
📘 What is a Salt?
●A salt is a compound like sodium chloride
(table salt).
🧂 Uses of Salts
●Sodium chloride → preserves and flavours
food
●Magnesium carbonate → keeps gymnasts’
hands dry
●Calcium sulfate → used to make blackboard
chalk
●Aluminium sulfate → helps dyes stick to fibres
●Copper sulfate → stops fungi on seeds
●Ammonium nitrate → fertiliser for crops
📘 Acids and Salts
●The chemical industry makes huge amounts of
salts.
●Many salts are made starting from acids.
●All acids contain hydrogen.
Acid Formula Salts Formed Example Salt
Hydrochloric Acid HCl Chlorides Sodium Chloride
Sulfuric Acid H₂SO₄ Sulfates Copper Sulfate
Nitric Acid HNO₃ Nitrates Potassium Nitrate
Other Acids
●Carbonic acid
○Formed when carbon dioxide reacts with
water
○Forms carbonates
●Citric acid
○Found in fruits (oranges, lemons)
○Forms citrates
📘 Making Salts Using a Metal and an Acid
General equation:
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Example:
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid → Zinc chloride +
Hydrogen
📘 Making Salts Using a Metal Oxide
Some metals (like copper and silver) are too
unreactive to react directly with acids.
So we use a metal oxide.
General equation:
Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water
Example:
Sulfuric acid + Copper Oxide → Copper sulfate +
Water
📘 Metal Carbonates and Acids – Notes
1️⃣ What are Carbonates?
●Carbonates (e.g., calcium carbonate, CaCO₃)
are salts.
●They can be formed by reacting a metal with
carbonic acid.
●Examples of carbonates:
○Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)
○Magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃)
2️⃣ Reaction of Metal Carbonates with Acids
When a metal carbonate reacts with an acid, it
produces:
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon
Dioxide
This is the general equation.
3️⃣ Example Reactions
With Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuric acid + Calcium carbonate → Calcium sulfate + Water
+ Carbon dioxide
With Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrochloric acid + Calcium carbonate → Calcium chloride +
Water + Carbon dioxide
2HCl+CaCO3→CaCl2 +H20+CO2
Carbon Dioxide Experiment
How could you check that the gas given off in these
reactions is carbon dioxide??
To check that the gas which is given off is carbon
dioxide by a simple method called the lime water
test. Limewater is a clear solution of calcium
hydroxide dissolved in water.
Experiment -
First collect the carbon dioxide / gas produced
from the reaction. Deliver this gas into the
limewater by a tube. If the limewater turns milky
or cloudy then there is carbon dioxide. This
happens as calcium carbonate is formed.
Hydrogen Gas Experiment -
When metal reacts with acid. A salt + hydrogen is
formed. To test that the gas is hydrogen we can test
using a small experiment called the splint test.
Firstly , we have to collect the hydrogen in the test
tube. Then we have to light the test tube with a
splint. If the gas is hydrogen it will burn with a
squeaky pop.
Carbon dioxide + Calcium hydroxide → Calcium
carbonate + Water
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O
📘 Notes: Salts in Rocks & Neutralisation
🪨 Salts in Rocks
🔹 Copper Salts in Rocks
●Blue-green colour in rocks (like those in the
Atacama Desert) shows copper salts are
present.
●A common blue-green mineral is malachite.
●Malachite is made from copper carbonate.
🔹 Key Idea
Colour in rocks can indicate the type of metal salt
present.
🧪 Forming Salts by Neutralisation
🔹 What is Neutralisation?
Neutralisation happens when:
An acid reacts with an alkali (base) to form
salt and water.
🧠 General Word Equation
Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water
🔬 Example Reaction
Word Equation:
Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid → Sodium
chloride + Water
Symbol Equation:
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
Questions
How can you test to see if a liquid is acid or alkali?
A liquid can be tested using litmus paper or
universal indicator. Acids turn litmus red, while
alkalis turn litmus blue and show higher PH values
on the scale.
What word is used to describe a solution that is
neither acid nor alkali?
Neutral solution
Properties of Acids And Alkali -
Acids Alkalis
Have a PH less than 7 Have a PH more than 7
Sour in taste Soapy and bitter in taste
red / orange / yellow Blue / purple
Alkalis And Bases -
When a metal oxide dissolves in water , it forms an
alkaline solution. Metal oxides are called bases.
Soluble bases form alkalis when dissolved in water.
For example :
Sodium oxide + Water → Sodium hydroxide
Sodium oxide is a base and sodium hydroxide is an
alkali .
However some bases or metal oxides are not
soluble in water for example iron and copper oxide.
So they can't form alkalis but can still react with
acids to form salts.
Important 👍
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen
Acid + Metal Oxide → Salt + Water
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon
Dioxide
Acid + Alkali → Salt + Water
Metal Oxide + Water → Metal Hydroxide
Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
Exercise 5.5 -
Law of conservation of mass -
In a reaction the final product's mass will be equal
to the reactant's mass. As in a chemical reaction
the elements you begin with are the ones you end
with. Nothing is added or taken away. This is called
the law of conservation of mass.
Crystallization -
Experiment :
1) Add acid
2) Add Metal
3) Heat the solution until the metal is dissolved
4) You will see crystals forming at the edge.
5) Take the solution and put it in an evaporating
dish for a few days until the solution
completely evaporates.
6) The solution will evaporate and the crystals
of the metals will remain.
Hydrogen Gas Experiment -
When metal reacts with an acid. A salt + hydrogen
is formed. To test that the gas is hydrogen we can
test using a small experiment called the splint test.
Firstly , we have to collect the hydrogen in the test
tube. Then we have to light the test tube with a
splint. If the gas is hydrogen it will burn with a
squeaky pop.
🧑🔬 Chapter 8 - Rates of Reaction
Reaction?
The rate of reaction is the speed at which products are
formed or reactants are given off.
Why does the rate of reaction change over time?
The rate of reaction changes over time as in the start the
particles which have not reacted are more and collision happens
frequently. Over time, when there are less particles which have
not reacted the reaction slows down . After some time the
reaction ends when there is no more collision. As the particles
collide carbon dioxide is produced and there are more bubbles
produced. By the end, all bubbles will be gone.
The rate of reaction is affected by three ways :
●Surface Area
●Temperature
●Concentration
Surface area and the rate of reaction…
When you burn magnesium ribbon in a Bunsen flame
it reacts very quickly and burns with a white flame to
form magnesium oxide. However , if you place a large
block of magnesium it does not burn. If you place
magnesium powder in the Bunsen flame it burns much
faster than the ribbon.
Magnesium powder - Fastest Reaction
Magnesium ribbon- Fast Reaction
Magnesium Block- No reaction
What is surface area?
Surface area is the total area of the outside part of a substance
that is exposed to its surroundings.
In the example:
● Magnesium reacts with oxygen in the air.
● Only the magnesium atoms on the surface can touch
oxygen and react.
● The atoms inside cannot react because oxygen cannot
reach them.
So, surface area means how much of the substance is exposed
and available to react.
Why does this happen -
As the magnesium reacts with oxygen in the air. Only the
magnesium atoms on the surface can react and make contact
with the oxygen. In the magnesium block most of the
magnesium atoms are inside and away from the oxygen. In
the magnesium ribbon more of the atoms are on the surface
and react. The more atoms on the surface which can react,
the more the surface are. Magnesium powder has even more
surface area than the magnesium ribbon as it has the most
atoms on the surface available to react .
More the surface area → Quicker the reaction
Exercise 8.3 -
Temperature and the rate of reaction
If the temperature of the reactants in the reaction is changed
then the rate of reaction will also change.
Particle theory: When the temperature of the reaction is
increased , the particles move faster and collide quicker with
more energy. Therefore , we can say…. More the temperature →
Faster the rate of reaction.
Gas Syringe
A gas syringe is used to collect and measure the volume of gas
produced during a chemical reaction.
Exercise 8.4 - Concentration and the rate of
reaction
The rate of reaction is also affected by the
concentration. Higher the concentration → faster
the rate of reaction.
What is concentration?
Concentration means how much of something is
mixed into a certain amount of liquid.
Concentration affects the rate of reaction
because when concentration is higher, there
are more particles in the same volume. This
increases the frequency of collisions between
particles, so more successful collisions occur
per second, making the reaction happen
faster.
What is a catalyst ?
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction without being used up. It works by lowering
the activation energy, so the reaction can happen
more easily and faster.
🟰 Balancing Equations
Balancing Equations
1. Balancing equations is when you turn a normal equation that’s
unbalanced (eg. H20 + C02 - C6H1206 + O2) into a balanced equation
(eg. 6H20 + 6CO2 - C6H12O6 + 6O2).
2. How do you do it? - Balancing chemical equations ensures the
number of atoms for each element is identical on both sides. So you
have to match the number of particles in each side like so:
● Think of it like this: Matching socks. If you have 4 red socks in the
wash, you'd better have 4 red socks in the dryer.
● The Big Rule: Don't Touch the Small Numbers. If you have H2O and
you change the “2” to “4”, it isn’t water anymore, right?
1. To help understand, let’s take an example equation: Mg+ O2 -> MgO
(Unbalanced equation)
● Count your “socks” (atoms)
● The left side has 1 Mg (Magnesium) atom and O2 has 2 oxygen atoms.
● The right side has one Mg atom, and O has one oxygen atom. It
doesn’t add up. It’s basically like 1+2 = 2
● To make it equal, we do these steps: Put a 2 in front of Mg. Don't
change O2. Put 2 in front of MgO. There you have it! Your equation’s
balanced. A number before the whole compound, like MgO, is
practically multiplication (mathematical term). You put 2 in front of it,
and it becomes 2 MgO atoms. If you put it after an element, like in
MgO, we put Mg2O, it means there are 2 magnesium atoms and a
single oxygen atom
2. Now a bit more advanced one, C2H6 + O2 -> CO2 + H20
● The left side has 2 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms, and 2 oxygen
atoms
● The right side has 1 carbon atom, 2 oxygen atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms,
and 1 more oxygen atom
● Now to make it equal, we first make carbon and hydrogen equal, so 2
in front of CO2 and 3 in front of H20.
● Now there’s an oxygen trap, so to solve it, let’s recount the number of
oxygen atoms so
From 2CO2: 2X2 = 4 Oxygen atoms.
From 3H2O: 3X1 = 3 Oxygen atoms.
Total = 7 Oxygen atoms.
● Now, the double-everything trick: put a 2 in front of C2H6.
● Change the 2 in front of CO2 to a 4.
● Change the 3 in front of H2O to a 6.
Current Equation: 2C2H6 + O2 -> 4CO2 + 6H2O
Final Count for Oxygen:
● Right side: (4X2) + (6X1) = 14 Oxygen atoms.
● To get 14 on the left, we just need a 7 in front of the O2.
The equation’s now balanced!
Final result: 2C2H6 + 7O2 -> 4CO2 + 6H2O
● One last tip: things like (NO3)3 are also multipliers, so Nitrogen atoms
become 3 and oxygen atoms become 9.
⚛️ Physics
🏋️ Chapter 3- Forces and energy
1. Density
● Core Definition: Density is the amount of mass in a given volume.
● The Equation: Mass/Volume
● Units: g/cm3
● Floating & Sinking:
○ Float: An object floats if its average density is lower than that of the liquid (e.g.,
wood in water, or a hollow steel ship filled with air).
○ Sink: An object sinks if its density is higher than that of the liquid.
● States of Matter: Gases have much lower densities than solids or liquids because their
particles are far apart.
2. Heat vs. Temperature
● Heat (Thermal Energy): The total energy of all the vibrating particles in an object. It
depends on the number of particles (mass) and their speed.
● Temperature: A measure of the average energy of the particles. It tells you how hot or
cold something is, regardless of its size.
● Absolute Zero: The theoretical temperature where particles stop moving entirely. It is
defined as -273 degrees Celsius or 0 Kelvin
3. Conservation of Energy
● The Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from one
store to another or dissipated.
● Energy Balance: Total Energy Input = Total Energy Output.
● Dissipation: Energy that is "wasted" (usually as thermal energy) as it spreads out into
the surroundings and becomes less useful.
4. Thermal Energy Transfer
Thermal energy always moves from a higher temperature (hot) to a lower temperature (cold).
● Conduction: Transfer through solids. Particles vibrate and pass energy to their
neighbors. Metals are excellent conductors; plastics/wood are insulators.
● Convection: Transfer in fluids (liquids and gases). Warmer, less dense regions rise,
while cooler, denser regions sink, creating a convection current.
● Radiation: Transfer via infrared waves. It does not need particles, so it can travel
through a vacuum (like sunlight through space).
○ Absorption/Emission: Dull, black surfaces are the best at both.
○ Reflection: Shiny, white, or silver surfaces reflect radiation.
5. Evaporation and Cooling
● The Process: Particles in a liquid have different energies. The fastest-moving (highest
energy) particles escape from the surface as a gas.
● Cooling Effect: Because the high-energy particles leave, the average energy of the
remaining particles decreases, causing the temperature of the liquid to drop.
● Real-world Examples: * Sweating: Evaporating sweat removes thermal energy from
the skin.
○ Porous Clay Pots: Water seeps through the clay and evaporates off the outside,
cooling the water inside.
🔈 Chapter 6-Sound and Space
Chapter 6 - Sound and Space
Loudness -
The loudness of a sound is a way to describe how quiet
or loud a sound appears . It depends on two variables.
Firstly , how much the object vibrates - the greater the
distance of each vibration, the louder the sound.
Secondly , how far the vibrating object is - the further
away the quieter the sound that we hear.
Amplitude - The maximum distance that particles
move, either forward or backward in a sound wave,
is called amplitude. It is measured in two ways.
Firstly , the amplitude is the distance from zero to
the peak (the top of the graph). Secondly, the
amplitude is the distance from zero to the trough(the
bottom of the graph).
Pitch- Pitch is the perceived highness or
lowness of a sound, mainly determined by the
frequency of sound waves. Higher frequency
creates higher pitch, while lower frequency
creates lower pitch.
Frequency - The number of vibrations per second is
called frequency. As the frequency of a sound wave
increases, the pitch of the sound also increases.
Frequency is measured in hertz.
If the amplitude increases so the loudness also
increases. While if the pitch increases the frequency also
increases.
Oscilloscope - Oscilloscope is a piece of equipment that
displays waveforms of soundwaves by using a
microphone to detect the sound.
Exercise - 6.3
Formation of the Moon..
The collision theory is a theory based on how the moon
was formed. The theory states that soon after the
formation of the solar system, there was a collision
between Earth and a newly formed planet named Theia
about the size of Mars. This caused rocks and dust to
break and mix away from both planets. The theory states
that the Moon was formed when rocks and dust of both
planets were pulled by gravity.
Evidences That Support This Theory : -
1. The Moon is less dense than the Earth :
This means the Moon probably formed from the outer parts
of Earth, not the heavy iron core.
2. The moon has a small iron core similar to that of Earth
3. Earth and Moon rocks are very similar
The rocks on the Moon have almost the same form as rocks
on Earth, suggesting the Moon formed from Earth’s material.
Evidence that CONTRADICTS the collision theory
1. A giant impact should have melted a lot of Earth’s
surface, but scientists don’t see clear evidence that this
happened everywhere.
2. Venus does not have a moon
If large collisions were common when planets formed,
scientists might expect Venus to also have a moon, but it
doesn’t.
3. If another planet hits Earth, some Moon rocks should
look like rocks from that object. Instead, Moon rocks look
more like Earth rocks, which is confusing for the theory.
⚡ Chapter 9 - Electricity
PHYSICS
Electricity - Chapter 9
Exercise 9.1 - Parallel Circuits
Basics -
Ammeter - An ammeter measures the current flowing
through the circuit.
Ampere - An ampere is the unit used to measure electric
current in a [Link] tells us how much electric charge
flows per second through a conductor
Lamp - In an electrical circuit, a lamp converts electrical
energy into light energy.
Bell / Buzzer - They convert electrical energy into
sound energy.
Switch - A switch is a component in an electrical
circuit that controls the flow of electric current.
Open Switch - If the switch is open the circuit
wont work as the current will flow out.
Closed Switch - If the switch is closed the circuit
will work as the current wont flow out.
Cell - A cell is the source of electrical energy in a
circuit. It provides voltage that pushes current
through the circuit.
Battery - A battery is a combination of two or more
cells connected together in a circuit. It provides
electrical energy to push current through the circuit.
Mains - Mains electricity is the electrical power
supplied from power stations to homes and buildings.
It provides a higher voltage source to drive current
through electrical circuits.
Voltmeter - A voltmeter in a circuit measures the
voltage across a component.
Voltage - Voltage is the potential difference
between two points in an electrical circuit. It is
the push that causes current to flow and is
measured in volts (V).
Series Circuit -
Series means that all the components are connected end to
end or one after the [Link] means that the components
are connected in series. In a series circuit the current only
flows in one [Link] current around the circuit is the
same meaning that all the components have the same
current.
Parallel circuit - In a parallel circuit, there is more than
one path for the current to flow. The paths where the
current can flow are called branches. The components in
each branch are connected in parallel.
In a parallel circuit, the current from the cell or the power
supply is the total of the current in all branches. Also, if
there are identical components, the current will be
distributed equally.
Advantages of Parallel Circuits -
Firstly the components in the circuit can be switched on
and off individually by adding switches in the branch. The
second advantage is that even if one branch stops working
the other branches will continue to work . On the other
hand in a series circuit if one switch is not working then
the whole circuit wont work.
There can be a switch to turn on and off all the components
at the same time in a parallel circuit as well.
Voltage - Voltage is the electrical energy supplied
by the cell, battery or the power supply. Voltage is
measured by a voltmeter in the unit Volts (V). Most
cells supply 1.5 V. Batteries are two or more cells
connected in a circuit. The sockets on the walls
supply a mains voltage. Mains means the electrical
supply that comes from a power station and
supplying 220-240 V in most countries .
Voltage in Series Circuit -
The voltage across each component in a circuit
must add up to the cell or power supply in a series
circuit. The voltage is distributed in a series circuit.
Adding more components in a series circuit will
decrease the current as it will be harder for the
power supply to push electrons through the circuit.
Adding more cells increases the voltage of the
supply.
Voltage in Parallel circuits -
The voltage across each component in a parallel
circuit is the [Link] voltage of the cell or the
power supply must be equal to every component in
the [Link] more components in a parallel
circuit will increase the current as it is easier for
the power supply to push electrons through the
circuit.
Exercise 9.3 - Resistance
What is resistance?
Resistance is how easy or difficult it is for the
electrons to flow through a material. Resistance
slows down the flow of current in the circuit by
opposing it. The higher the resistance, the smaller
the current. The unit of resistance is an ohm (Ω).
Conductors and Insulators –
Conductors like copper have very low resistance and
allow electricity to flow very easily. Insulators like
plastic have very high resistance and it is very
difficult for the electrons to flow. Conductors are
designed to have very low resistance so the wires in
a circuit affect the current as little as
[Link] such as plastic have high
resistance so that they do not allow the current to
flow almost all the time. Some conductors have high
resistance. For example inside some lamps there is a
small wire called filament. It has high resistance so
that there is less current and thermal energy gets
transferred in the [Link] needs to be plenty of
thermal energy for the filament to glow and emit
light .
Ohms Law -
Voltage = Current x Resistance
V = Voltage (volts)
I = Current (amps)
R = Resistance (ohms)
Resistors -
What is a resistor ?
A resistor is an electrical component which can control
the flow of current throughout a circuit. Many resistors
have coloured bands which form a code to show the
resistance value in ohms.
Exercise 9.4 - Practical Circuits
There are two types of resistors. One is the fixed resistor
and the other is the variable resistor. The fixed resistor
has a fixed amount of resistance whereas a variable
resistor can control the resistance and has no color
code.
Fixed resistor
Variable resistor
⚠️ Important
Important differences between Series and Parallel :
Current stays the same in series, but Voltage changes
Voltage stays the same in parallel, but Current changes
1)Current is the flow of electrons
2)Voltage is the energy present in the electrons
3)Stellar nurseries are vast, cold, and dense interstellar clouds of gas and dust
(molecular clouds or nebulae) where stars are born.
4)When a metal reacts with nitric acid
to form a metal nitrate, water, and various nitrogen oxides rather than
hydrogen gas, acting as a strong oxidizing agent. Concentrated acid typically
yields nitrogen dioxide While dilute acid produces nitric oxide
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