Introduction to Traffic Engineering

Traffic Engineering

Traffic engineering is that branch of Civil

Engineering which deals with the application
of scientific principles, tools, techniques
and findings for the safe rapid convenient
economic movement of people and goods.

The basic object of Traffic Engineering is to

achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic
with least number of accidents.
 Traffic Engineering

The study of Traffic Engineering may be divided

into the following section;
Traffic Characteristics
Traffic studies and analysis
Traffic operation control and regulation
Planning and analysis
Administration and Management
Geometric Design
 Transportation Modes
Urban People Transportation Systems
 Cars
 Taxi/For-Hire Vehicles
 Local Buses
 Matatus
 Light Rail
 Heavy Rail
 Ferry
Intercity People-Transportation Systems
Urban and Intercity Freight Transportation
 Transportation Modes

Intercity People-Transportation Systems

 Intercity Buses
 Heavy Rail

Urban and Intercity Freight Transportation

 Heavy and Medium Goods Vehicles
 Heavy Rail
Traffic Engineering Profession

• Relationship with General Public

 More than any other engineer.
• Relationship with Elected Officials
 A wide range of officials.
• Professional Ethics
 According to outcomes it produces great
responsibility.
Safety: The Primary Objective

The principal goal of the traffic engineer

remains the provision of a safe system for
highway traffic;
Approx. 3000 (15k) fatalities in Kenya yearly;
Approx. 1.18M fatalities in the world yearly;
 The objective of safe travel is always
number one and is never fully realized for the
traffic engineer.
Other Objectives of Traffic Engineer

Speed
Comfort
 Convenience
 Economy
Environmental compatibility
 Other Objectives of Traffic Engineer

While speed of travel is much to be desired, it is limited

by transportation technology, human characteristics, and
the need to provide safety.

Comfort and convenience are generic terms and mean

different things to different people. Comfort involves the
physical characteristics of vehicles and roadways, and is
influenced by our perception of safety.

Convenience relates more to the ease with which trips

are made and the ability of transport systems to
accommodate all of our travel needs at appropriate times.
 Other Objectives of Traffic Engineer
Economy is also relative. There is little in modern
transportation systems that can be termed “cheap.”
Highway and other transportation systems involve
massive construction, maintenance, and operating
expenditures, most of which are provided through
general and user taxes and fees.

Harmony with the environment is a complex issue

that has become more important over time. All
transportation systems have some negative
impacts on the environment. All produce air and
noise pollution in some forms, and all utilize valuable
land resources.
Elements of Traffic Engineering
 Traffic studies and characteristics;
 Performance evaluation;
 Facility design;
 Traffic control;
Traffic operations;
Transportation systems management;
Travel demand management
 Integration of intelligent transportation system
technologies (ITS).
Elements of Traffic Engineering

Traffic studies and characteristics

 Involve measuring and quantifying various
aspect of highway traffic. Studies focus on data
collection and analysis that is used to
characterize traffic, including (but not limited
to) traffic volumes and demands, speed and
travel time, delay, accidents, origins and
destinations, modal use, and other variables;
Elements of Traffic Engineering

Performance evaluation
Is a means by which traffic engineers can
rate the operating characteristics of
individual sections of facilities and facilities
as a whole in relative terms; Such evaluation
relies on measures of performance quality and is
often stated in terms of “levels of service.”
Elements of Traffic Engineering

Facility design
Involves traffic engineers in the functional and
geometric design of highways and other traffic
facilities; Traffic engineers, per se, are not involved in
the structural design of highway facilities but should
have some appreciation for structural characteristics
of their facilities.
Elements of Traffic Engineering

Traffic control

Is a central function of traffic engineers and

involves the establishment of traffic
regulations and their communication to
the driver through the use of traffic
control devices, such as signs, markings,
and signals.
Elements of Traffic Engineering

Traffic operations
Involves measures that influence overall
operation of traffic facilities, such as one-
way street systems, transit operations, curb
management, and surveillance and network
control systems.
Elements of Traffic Engineering
Transportation systems management (TSM)

Involves virtually all aspects of traffic

engineering with a focus on optimizing
system capacity and operations. Specific
aspects of TSM include high-occupancy
vehicle priority systems, car-pooling
programs, pricing strategies to manage
demand, and similar functions.
 Transportation System
Management (TSM)

Facility Design

Add Lanes;
Remove Bottlenecks (Bridges, Tunnel,…);
Revise Geometrics to Increase Speed;
Vehicle Improvement to Reduce Headways.
 Transportation System Management
(TSM)

Traffic Control

Ramp metering;
Signal Coordination;
Signal Phase Sequence;
Left or Right Turn Restrictions;
Parking Restrictions.
Transportation Demand
Management (TDM)

Reducing Demand
Telecommuting;
Trip Chaining;
Shorter Work Week;
Residential Relocation;
Alternative Land Use Pattern.
Transportation Demand
Management (TDM)

Shifting Demand
Flexible Working Hours;
Staggered Working Hours;
Business Operating Hours;
Repacking Demand
Car Pooling and Van Pooling;
Transit.
 Elements of Traffic Engineering

Intelligent transportation systems (ITS)

 Refers to the application of modern
telecommunications technology to the operation
and control of transportation systems. Such
systems include automated highways,
automated toll-collection systems, vehicle-
tracking systems, in-vehicle GPS and mapping
systems, automated enforcement of traffic lights
and speed laws, smart control devices, etc.
TRAFFIC SURVEY AND DATA COLLECTION
 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

Traffic can be divided into two primary categories:

 Interrupted flow
 Un-interrupted flow

 Interrupted flow: occurs when vehicles traversing a

length of roadway are required to stop by causes
external to the traffic stream such as traffic control
devices.

 Un-interrupted flow: flow regulated by vehicle to

vehicle interactions on one side and by the interactions
between vehicles and the roadway environment and
geometry on the other side
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Traffic stream characteristics represent the

engineers’ quantitative measure for
understanding and describing traffic flow.
Traffic stream characteristics fall into two broad
categories:

 Macro-scopic parameters : characterize traffic

stream as a whole
 Microscopic parameters : behavior of
individual vehicles in the traffic stream with
respect to each other
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

 There are three macro-scopic parameters that

describe traffic stream:

 Volume- rate of flow

 Speed
 Density

 There are three micro-scopic parameters that

describe traffic stream:

 Headway
 Gap
 Occupancy
Macro-scopic parameters

Volume and flow rate

 Volume is the number of vehicles that pass a given

point on the roadway or a given lane or direction of a
highway in a specified period of time. The unit of
volume is simply no. of vehicles, although it is often
expressed as annual, daily, hourly peak and off-
peak.
 Macro-scopic parameters

Density

 Density is the number of vehicles present on a

given length of roadway or lane. Normally,
density is reported in terms of vehicles per mile or
per kilometer. High densities indicate that
individual vehicles are very close to each other, while
low densities imply greater distances between
vehicles.

 Density is a difficult parameter to measure directly

in the field. Direct measurements of density can be
obtained through aerial photography, which is an
expensive method or it can be estimated from the
density, flow and speed relationship
Macro-scopic parameters
Density
Macro-scopic parameters

Speed
Distance over time
Different aspects of speed are important
and are measured
The average speed on a section of a road
is used to calculate travel time which is
an important parameter
 Microscopic characteristics

Headway

 Headway is a measure of the temporal space

between two vehicles or more specifically the time
that elapses between the arrival of the leading
vehicle and the following vehicle at the designated
test point along a lane.

 Headway between two vehicles is measured by

starting a chronograph when the front bumper of
the first vehicle crosses the selected point and
subsequently recording the time that the second
vehicles front bumper crosses over the designated
point. Headway is reported in terms of seconds.
Microscopic characteristics
 Microscopic characteristics

Gap
 Gap is similar to the headway measure except
that it is a measure of the time that elapses
between the departure of the first vehicle and
the arrival of the second at the designated test
point.
 Gap is a measure of the time between the
rear bumper of the first vehicle and the
front bumper of the second vehicle. Gap is
also reported in terms of seconds
 Microscopic characteristics

Occupancy
 Occupancy denotes the proportion or percentage of
time a point on the road is occupied by vehicles.
 It is measured, using loop detectors as the fraction
of time that vehicles are on the detector.
 Therefore, for a specific time interval T, occupancy is
the sum of the time that vehicles cover the detector,
divided by T.
 For each individual vehicle, the time spent on the
detector is determined as function of the vehicles
speed, its headway, its length L plus the length of the
detector itself.
Microscopic characteristics

Occupancy
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT
Data

 Data are an essential input for the effective

planning and design of transport systems, either
directly by describing the current state of the
system or indirectly by allowing the calibration
of study models.
Defining data requirements

 The requirement for information needs to be defined into

a precise specification of data requirements in terms of:

 Variables of interest to be studied

 Hypotheses to be tested

 The specification of the variables and the hypotheses at

an early stage concentrates the mind on the real purpose
of the survey and ensures that all subsequent efforts are
properly targeted.
 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

 Secondary data sources

 Once the data requirements have been specified it is
important to consider whether they can be met by
making use of existing data thereby avoiding the need
for a special survey/ new data collection.
 Use of existing data or secondary sources can save time and
money and is particularly desirable when a survey is likely
to cause disruption and annoyance to the travelling public.
 The accuracy and relevance of the data could be a
challenge.
 The sources of secondary data:-
 Published databases
 Local area surveys
 Data produced as a by-product of a control or
management system
 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

• Published databases- a wide range of data is

available or could be available in existing databases.
Much of it is collected by government agencies as part
of regular monitoring exercises. Such data are useful
for establishing background trends.

• Detailed local data- available if there have been

previous surveys in the study area. It could be part of
the local monitoring program or part of an ad-hoc
study.

• Databases produced as a by-product of

management and control systems- examples of
these include data captured during operations of
traffic control systems, usage of car parks or flow
through set traffic barriers.
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

Resource requirements

 Assuming that after careful consideration of all secondary

sources of data the need for further data collection is
established, the next stage would be to produce detailed
specification.

 The specifications must take account of the resources

available and what can be achieved in terms of accuracy
and coverage.

Choice of survey equipment

• Once the decision to proceed has been made the survey

planner must define the survey instrument.

• Definition of survey instrument involves choosing the most

appropriate technique to be employed in carrying out the
survey.
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

Design of sampling strategy

 It is associated with the definition of the experimental
hypotheses and of the variables of interest and involves
definition of the sampling units, the target population, the
sampling frame, the sampling method and the sample
size.
 Sampling units- basic units whose characteristics or
behavior are to be determined.

 Target population- indicates which sample units are in the

survey. If the data requirements have been well specified the
definition of the target population is straight forward.

 Sampling frame- it is a register of the target population

which defines all the sampling units within the target
population and which provides the framework for the
sampling process.
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

Sampling methods

 The choice of sampling method will depend on the objectives

of the survey and perhaps the survey technique being
employed.

 Common sampling techniques:-

 Random sampling- every sampling unit has an equal

opportunity
 Systematic sampling- selection of every nth unit from
the sampling frame
 Stratified sampling- division of population into groups
on the basis of some characteristic
 Cluster sampling- selection of groups of adjacent units
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

Types of surveys that can be done:-

 Traffic counts
o Automatic traffic counts
o Manual traffic counts
 Number plate surveys/ ANPR-
automatic number plate recognition
 Roadside interview surveys
 Origin- destination surveys
HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

Types of surveys that can be done:-

 Video surveys
o Traffic flow
o Turning movements
o Speeds
o Congestion and delays
o Parking and loading
o Pedestrian movements
 Axle load surveys
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Conventional technologies
• Broadly speaking, "in-situ" " technologies
refer to traffic data measured by the means
of detectors located along the road.
Generally, traffic count technologies can be
split into two categories:
 Intrusive methods
 Non-intrusive methods.
Intrusive methods

The intrusive methods basically

consist of a data recorder and a
sensor placed on or in the road.
 They have been employed for many
years and the most important ones
are briefly described hereafter:
 Intrusive methods
 Pneumatic road tubes: and its efficiency is subject
rubber tubes are placed to weather, temperature
across the road lanes to and traffic conditions.
detect vehicles from This system may also not
pressure changes that be efficient in measuring
are produced when a low speed flows.
vehicle tyre passes over
the tube.

 The pulse of air that is

created is recorded and
processed by a counter
located on the side of the
road.

 The main drawback of this

technology is that it has
limited lane coverage
 Intrusive methods
Piezoelectric sensors: the
sensors are placed in a
groove along roadway
surface of the lane(s)
monitored.

 The principle is to convert

mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

 This system can be used

to measure weight and
speed.
 Intrusive methods
 Magnetic loops: it is the most
conventional technology used to
collect traffic data.
 The loops are embedded in
roadways in a square formation
that generates a magnetic field.
 The information is then
transmitted to a counting device
placed on the side of the road.
 This has a generally short life
expectancy because it can be
damaged by heavy vehicles, but
is not affected by bad weather
conditions.
 This technology has been widely
deployed in Europe (and
elsewhere) over the last decades.
However, the implementation and
maintenance costs can be
expensive.
Non- Intrusive methods

 Non-intrusive techniques are based on

remote observations. Even if manual
counting is the most used method, new
technologies have recently emerged
which seem very promising:
Non- Intrusive methods
 Manual counts: Traffic flows can be measured by
manual observation, instead of using an
automatic counter.
 Traffic flowing past a survey point is counted by an
observer, who would record the flow using either a tally
counter by taking a manual count of vehicles and
recording it on paper, typically using a five bar gate
counting technique, or by using a hand-held
computer.
 Counts are classified, to identify the volume and
mix of types of vehicles using the road at the
survey point.
 If a data collection survey is only planned to cover a
short period of time, then the expense of installing an
automatic counter may not be justified when compared
with the cost of using a surveyor.
Non- Intrusive methods

Manual counts:
 Manual classified counts (MCCs) become
more difficult where flows are very high,
and where any break in concentration can
introduce high error rates in the count
Non- Intrusive methods

Vehicle classification :
 The classification of vehicles into different types
can vary according to the local conditions and the
exact reason for the survey.
 For example, an urban traffic flow study in China
may include a separate classification for bicycles,
or a road upgrading appraisal study in a rural
area may include a separate classification for
animal-drawn carts or other slow traffic.
Non- Intrusive methods
Vehicle classification :
Non- Intrusive methods

Manual counts:
 Manual counts are carried out by observers situated at
an observation point at the side of the road.
 The most usual type of survey is a classified count in
which, as vehicles pass the observation point, an
observer records each vehicle on a survey form according
to the vehicle type.
 A survey period of one week is the most common and is
usually recommended and each direction should be
recorded separately. It is also normal practice to
record the data separately for each hour of the
count.
 The results of a manual classified traffic count should
show the total traffic and its composition by vehicle type
in each direction. Thus the count should accurately
reflect the traffic flow on the road at a particular location
and time of the year.
Non- Intrusive methods

Converting a partial day’s count into a full day’s traffic

count :
 Traffic flows vary throughout the day and therefore a
traffic count for 12 hours cannot simply be doubled to
give an estimated count for 24 hours. The count will
depend upon the specific hours that the data have been
recorded e.g. a traffic count from 06.00 to 18.00 hours is
likely to be significantly different to a count from 08.00 to
20.00 hours.
 To convert a partial-day count to a full-day count, the
count is grossed up using a 24-hour traffic count and
taking the ratio of traffic in the same counting period to
the full 24-hour count. For example, for a 12-hour survey
from 06.00 to 18.00, then:
Non- Intrusive methods

Converting a partial day’s count into a full day’s traffic

count :
 It is very important that traffic counts from the same
periods of the day are used in the numerator and
denominator of this equation. If, for example, a count is
from, say, 08.00 to 20.00 hours, then the traffic in this
time period during the 24-hour count must be used in the
scaling process, not the traffic in any other 12-hour
period.
 Since there is usually a different pattern of traffic at
weekends compared with weekdays, especially for
commercial vehicles, a partial-weekday count should be
grossed up based on a weekday 24-hour count and a
partial-weekend day should be grossed up based on a
weekend 24-hour count.
 A full week’s traffic count will be the sum of five full 24-
hour weekdays and two full 24-hour weekend days. The
average daily count (i.e. ADT) is calculated by dividing the
weeks count by seven.
 Non- Intrusive methods
 Passive and active infra-red: the presence, speed
and type of vehicles are detected based on the infrared
energy radiating from the detection area. The main
drawbacks are the performance during bad weather,
and limited lane coverage.
 Non- Intrusive methods

 Passive magnetic: magnetic sensors are fixed under

or on top of the roadbed. They count the number of
vehicles, their type and speed. However, in operating
conditions the sensors have difficulty differentiating
between closely spaced vehicles.
Non- Intrusive methods

 Microwave radar: this technology can detect

moving vehicles and speed (Doppler radar). It
records count data, speed and simple vehicle
classification and is not affected by weather
conditions.
Non- Intrusive methods

 Ultrasonic and passive acoustic: these

devices emit sound waves to detect vehicles
by measuring the time for the signal to return
to the device.
 The ultrasonic sensors are placed over the
lane and can be affected by temperature or
bad weather.
 The passive acoustic devices are placed
alongside the road and can collect vehicle
counts, speed and classification data.
They can also be affected by bad weather
conditions (e.g. low temperatures, snow)
 Non- Intrusive methods

Video image detection: The use of video as a data

collection tool in traffic engineering is a relatively new
but potentially very powerful concept.

 A strategically placed camera can be used to

observe traffic and parking activity in a street
and, depending on location and equipment, it is
possible to survey up to 400 metres of road
from a single vantage point
 Cameras are mounted high to minimize the
obstruction of the longer view from vehicles near to
the camera.
Non- Intrusive methods

Video image detection:

 One of the key advantages of a camera is that it
records everything that happens. Other survey
techniques inevitably only record partial data,
collecting just those aspects of traffic behaviour
which the survey is designed to record.
 With a video survey, it is possible to review the
video and observe other activities which were
thought to be unimportant when the survey was
planned.
 The video has a particular advantage when flows are
very high and it is difficult to count manually, or
when we wish to study a particular location where
we are not absolutely sure what the key issue is.
 Video image detection
 With a video we can simultaneously record.

 Traffic flow
 Turning movements
 Speeds
 Congestion and delays
 Parking and loading pedestrian movements.

 Video surveys are not cheap. Although the data

collection may only require the presence of a single
technician, to monitor the equipment, the subsequent
recording and analysis of data from the video can take
up to six times as long as the real-time recording;
depending on what data is to be collated from the video
and whether or not computer-assisted techniques are
available.
Non- Intrusive methods

 ANPR and probe vehicles

 ANPR systems are now being commonly used for
measuring traffic speeds by recording at two camera
sites the times of vehicles passing and their registration
number plates. From this information the speed profile
of vehicles over a section of road can be determined.
 Non- Intrusive methods

 ANPR and probe vehicles

 Instrumented Probe vehicles can provide spot speeds

and are equipped with:
 On-board equipment for continuous measurement
of the vehicle’s speed;
 GPS to record the vehicle’s location;
 An accurate time clock;
 A GSM mobile device to communicate location,
speed and time information to a central location.
Non- Intrusive methods

The Floating Car Data (FCD)

 The principle of FCD is to collect real-time traffic data
by locating the vehicle via mobile phones or GPS over
the entire road network. This basically means that
every vehicle is equipped with mobile phone or GPS which
acts as a sensor for the road network.
 Data such as car location, speed and direction of travel
are sent anonymously to a central processing centre. After
being collected and extracted, useful information (e.g.
status of traffic, alternative routes) can be redistributed to
the drivers on the road.
 FCD is an alternative or rather complement source of high
quality data to existing technologies. They will help improve
safety, efficiency and reliability of the transportation
system. They are becoming crucial in the development of
new Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
 Non- Intrusive methods

The Floating Car Data (FCD)

 The focus is on floating vehicle technologies
based on cellular and GPS probe data. This is
one category within the family of mobile traffic
probes.
 The other category of "in- vehicle" collection
methods refers to Automotive Vehicle
Identification (AVI) techniques. In this case,
probe vehicles are sampled at fixed location by
means of electronic transponders (tags) that are
read as the vehicles pass the sensors. Basically,
there are two main types of FCD, namely GPS
and cellular-based systems:
 Non- Intrusive methods

GPS-based FCD

 Even though GPS is becoming more and more used and

affordable, so far only a limited number of cars are
equipped with this system, typically fleet management
services (e.g. taxi drivers). The vehicle location precision
is relatively high, typically less than 30m.

 Generally, traffic data obtained from private vehicles or

trucks are more suitable for motorways and rural areas.
In case of urban traffic, taxi fleets are particularly useful
due to their high number and their on-board
communication systems already in place.

 Currently, GPS probe data are widely used as a source of

real-time information by many service provider.
Non- Intrusive methods

GPS-based FCD
 Non- Intrusive methods
FCD based on cellular phones

 The mobile phone positioning is regularly transmitted to the

network usually by means of triangulation or by other
techniques (e.g. handover) and then travel times and further
data can be estimated over a series of road segments before
being converted into useful information by traffic centres.
Pros and cons of the technologies
Pros and cons of the technologies

Pros and cons of FCDs

Floating Car Data is typically based on GPS
or cellular probe data.
Benefits/pros
High accuracy
Cost effective
Cons
Limited sample size
Time/spatial limitations