Introduction to Electrical Machine

Course objectives
Identify parts and elements of DC machines
Understand basic operation principles of DC generator
Know how to re-wind armature winding
Know factors that determine magnitude of Induced back EMF
Know main function of commutator
Know and identify different types of DC generators
Understand operation Principle of DC generator
Analyze Characteristics of DC generator
Understand DC motor principle and Back EMF of DC motor
Write Voltage equation of DC motor and apply it
Operate all types of DC motors and reverse direction of rotation
Understand and analyze characteristics of DC motor
DC motor Control speed
 Course content
Chapter- 1: Introduction to DC Machines
1.1 Construction of DC Machines
1.2 General Operation Principle of DC machines
Chapter- 2: Armature winding of DC Machines
2.1 Lap Winding
2.2 Wave winding
2.3 Uses of lap and wave windings
Chapter-3:DC Generator
3.1 Operation Principle of DC generator
3.2 Magnitude of Generated or Induced EMF
3.3 Function of commutator in DC generator
3.4 Separately excited DC generator
3.5 Shunt wound DC generator
3.6 Series wound DC generator
3.7 Compound wound DC generator
Conti..
3.8 Power flow and loses
3.9 Armature reaction and commutation
3.10 Parallel operation of DC Generator
3.11 Characteristics of DC Generator
3.11.1 No load saturation characteristic, Eg/If
3.11.2 Internal or total characteristic, E/Ia
3.11.3 External Characteristic, V/I
Chapter-4:DC Motor
4.1 Motor Principle
4.2 Back EMF
4.3 Types and Voltage Equation of DC motor
4.3.1 Shunt motor
4.3.2 Series motor
4.3.3 Compound motor
 Long Shunt Cumulative motor
 Short Shunt Cumulative motor
 Long Shunt Differential motor
Short Shunt Differential motor
 Cont..
4.4 Reversing Direction of Rotation
4.5 Torque of DC motor
4.6 Characteristics of DC motor
4.6.1 Electrical Characteristic of DC motor, T/Ia
4.6.2 Speed and armature current, N/Ia
4.6.3 Mechanical Characteristic of DC motor,
Chapter-5 Speed Control of DC Motor
5.1 Flux or field control method
5.2 Armature or rheostatic control method
5.3 Voltage Control method
 Introduction
Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.). It drives or tends to drive flux through a magnetic circuit and corresponds to
electromotive force (e.m.f.) in an electric circuit

Ampere-turns (AT). It is the unit of magnetometre force (m.m.f.) and is given by the product of number of
turns of a magnetic circuit and the current in amperes in those turns.

Reluctance. It is the name given to that property of a material which opposes the creation of magnetic flux in
it. It, in fact, measures the opposition offered to the passage of magnetic flux through a material and is
analogous to resistance in an electric circuit even in form

Permeance. It is reciprocal of reluctance and implies the case or readiness with which magnetic flux is
developed. It is analogous to conductance in electric circuits

Reluctivity. It is specific reluctance and corresponds to resistivity which is ‘specific resistance’.

 Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form to another through
the action of a magnetic field.
 When we talk about machines, another related device is the transformer. A transformer is a
device that converts ac electric energy at one voltage level to ac electric energy at another
voltage level.
 Transformers are usually studied together with generators and motors because they operate on
the same principle, the difference is just in the action of a magnetic field to accomplish the
change in voltage level.
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Introduction
The electromagnetic system is an essential element of all rotating
electric machinery and electromechanical devices as well as static
devices like the transformer.
The role of the electromagnetic system is to establish and control
electromagnetic fields for carrying out conversion of energy, its
processing and transfer.
several other essential devices like relays, circuit breakers, etc.
Need the presence of a confined magnetic field for their operation.
 Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force
The following properties may be ascribed to magnetic lines of force:
Magnetic lines of force are directed from north to south outside a magnet.
 Magnetic lines of force are continuous.
Magnetic lines of force enter or leave a magnetic surface at right angles.
Magnetic lines of force cannot cross each other.
Magnetic lines of force in the same direction tend to repel each other.
Magnetic lines of force tend to be as short as possible.
Magnetic lines of force occupy three-dimensional space extending
(theoretically) to infinity.
 The Magnetic Field
Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted from
one form to another in motors, generators and transformers.
A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it
The magnetic field is strongest perpendicular to the current direction.
If we grasp the conductor with our right hand, the thumb pointing in the direction of the
current, our fingers will point in the same direction as the filed. This method of
determining the directions of current flow in a conductor and the surrounding lines of
force is called Ampere's right-hand rule.
Ampere’s law – the basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a
current:
 H dl  I net

Where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet and dl is a differential
element of length along the path of integration. H is measured in Ampere-turns per meter.
Consider a current currying conductor is wrapped around a ferromagnetic core;

CSA

N turns

mean path length, lc

Applying Ampere’s law, the total amount of magnetic field induced will be
proportional to the amount of current flowing through the conductor wound with N
turns around the ferromagnetic material as shown. Since the core is made of
ferromagnetic material, it is assume that a majority of the magnetic field will be
confined to the core.
The path of integration in Ampere’s law is the mean path length of the core, lc. The current
passing within the path of integration Inet is then Ni, since the coil of wires cuts the path of
integration N times while carrying the current i. Hence Ampere’s Law becomes,
Hlc  Ni
Ni
H 
lc
In this sense, H (Ampere turns per meter) is known as the effort required to induce a magnetic
field. The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on the material
of the core. Thus, B  H
B = magnetic flux density (Webbers per square meter, Tesla (T))
µ= magnetic permeability of material (Henrys per meter)
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter)
The constant  may be further expanded to include relative permeability which can be defined
as below: 
r 
o
 o – permeability of free space
Hence the permeability value is a combination of the relative permeability and the permeability
of free space. The value of relative permeability is dependent upon the type of material used.
The higher the amount permeability, the higher the amount of flux induced in the core. Relative
permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability of materials.
Also, because the permeability of iron is so much higher than that of air, the majority of the flux
in an iron core remains inside the core instead of travelling through the surrounding air, which
has lower permeability. The small leakage flux that does leave the iron core is important in
determining the flux linkages between coils and the self-inductances of coils in transformers
and motors.
In a core such as in the figure,
Ni
B=H=
lc
Now, to measure the total flux flowing in the ferromagnetic core, consideration has to be made
in terms of its cross sectional area (CSA). Therefore,

A – cross sectional area throughout the core

 NiA

lc
Magnetics Circuits
The flow of magnetic flux induced in the ferromagnetic core can be made analogous to an electrical
circuit hence the name magnetic circuit.
A 
The analogy is:

+ +
V R F=Ni Reluctance, R
- -
(mmf)

Referring to the magnetic circuit analogy, F is denoted as magnetomotive force (mmf) which is
similar to Electromotive force in an electrical circuit (emf). Therefore, we can safely say that F is the
prime mover or force which pushes magnetic flux around a ferromagnetic core at a value of Ni (refer
to ampere’s law). Hence F is measured in ampere turns. Hence the magnetic circuit equivalent equation
is as shown:

F  R
The polarity of the mmf will determine the direction of flux. To easily determine the direction
of flux, the ‘right hand curl’ rule is utilized:
a) The direction of the curled fingers determines the current flow.
b) The resulting thumb direction will show the magnetic flux flow.
The element of R in the magnetic circuit analogy is similar in concept to the electrical
resistance. It is basically the measure of material resistance to the flow of magnetic flux.
Reluctance in this analogy obeys the rule of electrical resistance (Series and Parallel Rules).
Reluctance is measured in Ampere-turns per weber.
Series Reluctance, Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….
Parallel Reluctance, 1 1 1 1
    ...
Req R1 R2 R3
The inverse of electrical resistance is conductance which is a measure of
conductivity of a material. Hence the inverse of reluctance is known as
permeance, P where it represents the degree at which the material
permits the flow of magnetic flux. a) The direction of the curled fingers
 NiA 1
  P
determines the current flow. lc R
A F
 Ni  since  
lc R
A   FP
 F
lc
A lc
P  ,R 
lc A
By using the magnetic circuit approach, it simplifies calculations related to the magnetic field
in a ferromagnetic material, however, this approach has inaccuracy is due to:

a) The magnetic circuit assumes that all flux are confined within the core, but in reality a small
fraction of the flux escapes from the core into the surrounding low-permeability air, and this
flux is called leakage flux.

b) The reluctance calculation assumes a certain mean path length and cross sectional area of
the core. This is alright if the core is just one block of ferromagnetic material with no corners,
for practical ferromagnetic cores which have corners due to its design, this assumption is not
accurate.
c) In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with the amount of flux already in the
material. The material permeability is not constant hence there is an existence of non-linearity
of permeability.
d) For ferromagnetic core which has air gaps, there are fringing effects that should be taken into
account as shown:

S
Production of EMF
Induced voltage from a time-changing magnetic field
 Before, we looked at the production of a magnetic field and on its properties. Now, we will look at
the various ways in which an existing magnetic field can affect its surroundings.
Faraday’s Law:
‘If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, voltage will be induced in the turn of the wire that is
directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect of time’.
d
eind  
dt
If there is N number of turns in the coil with the same amount of flux flowing through it, hence:

d
eind   N
dt
Note the negative sign at the equation above which is in accordance to Lenz’ Law which states:
‘The direction of the build-up voltage in the coil is as such that if the coils were short
circuited, it would produce current that would cause a flux opposing the original flux
change.’
 If the flux shown is increasing in strength, then the voltage built up in the coil will tend to
establish a flux that will oppose the increase.
 A current flowing as shown in the figure would produce a flux opposing the increase.
 The voltage on the coil must be built up with the polarity required to drive the current
through the external circuit. So, -eind
 the minus sign is often left out because the polarity of the resulting voltage can be
determined from physical considerations.
 Equation assumes that exactly the same flux is present in each turn of the coil. This is
not true, since there is leakage flux. This equation will give valid answer if the windings are
tightly coupled, so that the vast majority of the flux passing thru one turn of the coil does
indeed pass through all of them.
d
eind  
dt
 Now consider the induced voltage in the ith turn of the coil,
di
ei 
dt
Since there is N number of turns The equation may be rewritten as
d
N
eind 
eind  e
i 1
i
dt
where  (flux linkage) is defined as:
N
   i (W-t)
N
d i

i 1

i 1 dt

dN 
   i 
dt  i 1 
 MAGNETIC FIELD
The Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in Transformers,
Generators and Motors
1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in area around it.
 Cont..
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes
through that coil. (This is the basis of transformer action.)
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on
it. (This is the basis of motor action.)
Cont..
4 A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced
in it. (This is the basis of generator action.)