Working and Operating Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current (electrical energy) into
mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important for
engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in
this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor we need to first look into
its constructional feature.

The very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying armature which is
connected to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed within the
north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below. Now to
go into the details of the operating principle of DC motor its important that we have a clear
understanding of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on the

armature conductors of dc motor.

Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and thumb of our
left hand in such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
(represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current (represented by the
middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction (represented by the
thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current in the conductor.
For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the
force, by considering the diagram below. We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is
made to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B,
then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is given by:-

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0

i.e. it’s the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction of
current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the
force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and
current is constant.
So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at
right hand side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in the opposite
direction with respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

∴ we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the
armature turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the
rotation of the armature conductor.

Now let's examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of α with its
initial position.

The torque produced is given by,

Where α is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the
initial position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.
The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the
torque at all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle α. To explain
the variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise
analysis.
Step 1: Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the
angle α = 0.

Since α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum
given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest of the
armature and sets it into rotation.

Step 2: Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the
armature and its reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it
becomes 90° from its initial position. Consequently the term cosα decreases and also the value of
torque.

The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than
0°.

Step 3: In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of
the rotor is exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90°, and as a result the term cosα
= 0.

The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does
not come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of dc motor has been
engineered in such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this
point of null torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual
position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.

The equation of torque is given by,

Where F is force in linear direction. R is radius of the object being rotated, and θ is the angle, the

force F is making with R vector

The dc motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of dc motor is a very important
parameter in this concern, and it’s of utmost importance to understand the torque equation of dc
motor for establishing its running characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a dc motor, and

its voltage equation.

Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf
produced and Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance respectively then the voltage
equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of dc motor we multiply
both sides of equation (2) by Ia.

Now Ia2 .Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective
mechanical power that is required to produce the desired torque of dc machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where ω is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) & (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of dc motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles, φ is flux per pole, Z is no. of conductors, A is no. of parallel paths, and
N is the speed of the D.C. motor.

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of dc motor, and subtracting the
mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque. Therefore, Tm = Tg -
mechanical losses. This is the torque equation of dc motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of dc motor varies with only
flux φ and armature current Ia. The Torque equation of a dc motor can also be explained
considering the figure below
 .

Current / conductor Ic = Ia / A Therefore, force per conductor = fc = BLIa/A Now torque Tc = fc.r
= BLIa.r/A

Hence the total torque developed of a dc machine is,

This torque equation of dc motor can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of dc motor varies with only
flux φ and armature current Ia.
EMF Equation of DC Generator
The derivation of EMF equation for DC generator has two parts:
1. Induced EMF of one conductor
2. Induced EMF of the generator

Derivation for Induced EMF of One Armature Conductor

For one revolution of the conductor, Let Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and P =
number of poles in the DC generator therefore, Total flux produced by all the poles

And, Time taken to complete one revolution

Where, N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm Now,according to Faraday’s law of

induction, the induced emf of the armature conductor is denoted by “e” which is equal to rate of
cutting the flux. Therefore,

Induced emf of one conductor is

Derivation for Induced EMF for DC Generator

Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series. Here, Z = total numbers of conductor A =
number of parallel paths Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series We know that
induced emf in each path is same across the line Therefore, Induced emf of DC generator E =
emf of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Induced emf of DC generator is

Simple wave wound generator Numbers of parallel paths are only 2 = A Therefore, Induced emf
for wave type of winding generator is
Simple lap-wound generator Here, number of parallel paths is equal to number of conductors in
one path i.e. P = A Therefore, Induced emf for lap-wound generator is

Construction of DC Motor | Yoke Poles Armature Field Winding

Commutator Brushes of DC Motor

A DC motor like we all know is a device that deals in the conversion of electrical energy to
mechanical energy and this is essentially brought about by two major parts required for the
construction of dc motor, namely. 1) Stator – The static part that houses the field windings and
receives the supply and,

2) Rotor – The rotating part that brings about the mechanical rotations.
Other than that there are several subsidiary parts namely the

3) Yoke of dc motor.
4) Poles of dc motor.
5) Field winding of dc motor.
6) Armature winding of dc motor.
7) Commutator of dc motor.
8) Brushes of dc motor.

All these parts put together configures the total construction of a dc motor. Now let’s do a
detailed discussion about all the essential parts of dc motor.
 Yoke of DC Motor

The magnetic frame or the yoke of dc motor made up of cast iron or steel and forms an integral
part of the stator or the static part of the motor. Its main function is to form a protective covering
over the inner sophisticated parts of the motor and provide support to the armature. It also
supports the field system by housing the magnetic poles and field winding of the dc motor.
Poles of DC Motor
The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted onto the inner wall of the yoke with
screws. The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts namely, the pole
core and the pole shoe stacked together under hydraulic pressure and then attached to the yoke.
These two structures are assigned for different purposes, the pole core is of small cross sectional
area and its function is to just hold the pole shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe having a
relatively larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux produced over the air gap between the
stator and rotor to reduce the loss due to reluctance. The pole shoe also carries slots for the field
windings that produce the field flux.
Field Winding of DC Motor

The field winding of dc motor are made with field coils (copper wire) wound over the slots of
the pole shoes in such a manner that when field current flows through it, then adjacent poles have
opposite polarity are produced. The field winding basically form an electromagnet, that produces
field flux within which the rotor armature of the dc motor rotates, and results in the effective flux
cutting.
Armature Winding of DC Motor
The armature winding of dc motor is attached to the rotor, or the rotating part of the machine,
and as a result is subjected to altering magnetic field in the path of its rotation which directly
results in magnetic losses. For this reason the rotor is made of armature core, that’s made with
several low-hysteresis silicon steel lamination, to reduce the magnetic losses like hysteresis and
eddy current loss respectively. These laminated steel sheets are stacked together to form the
cylindrical structure of the armature core.
The armature core are provided with slots made of the same material as the core to which the
armature winding made with several turns of copper wire distributed uniformly over the entire
periphery of the core. The slot openings a shut with fibrous wedges to prevent the conductor
from plying out due to the high centrifugal force produced during the rotation of the armature, in
presence of supply current and field.
The construction of armature winding of dc motor can be of two types:-
Lap Winding
In this case the number of parallel paths between conductors A is equal to the number of poles P.
i.e A = P

***An easy way of remembering it is by remembering the word LAP-----→ L A=P

Wave Winding
Here in this case, the number of parallel paths between conductors A is always equal to 2
irrespective of the number of poles. Hence the machine designs are made accordingly.
Commutator of DC Motor

The commutator of dc motor is a cylindrical structure made up of copper segments stacked

together, but insulated from each other by mica. Its main function as far as the dc motor is
concerned is to commute or relay the supply current from the mains to the armature winding
housed over a rotating structure through the brushes of dc motor.

Brushes of DC Motor
The brushes of dc motor are made with carbon or graphite structures, making sliding contact
over the rotating commutator. The brushes are used to relay the current from external circuit to
the rotating commutator form where it flows into the armature winding. So, the commutator and
brush unit of the dc motor is concerned with transmitting the power from the static electrical
circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.

Armature Reaction in DC Machine

In a DC machine, the carbon brushes are always placed at the magnetic neutral axis. In no load
condition, the magnetic neutral axis coincides with the geometrical neutral axis. Now, when the
machine is loaded, the armature flux is directed along the inter polar axis (the axis in between the
magnetic poles) and is triangular in wave shape. This results an armature current flux directed
along the brush axis and causes cross magnetization of the main field. This cross magnetization
effect results in the concentration of flux at the trailing pole tip in generator action and at the
leading pole tip in motor action.
What is leading and trailing pole tip?
The tip of the pole from where the armature conductors come into influence is called leading tip
and the other tip opposite in direction to it will be the trailing tip. For example, in the above
figure if the motor rotates clockwise, then for North Pole, the lower tip is leading tip and for
South Pole upper tip is leading tip. If the motion is reversed (in case of generator), the tips is
interchanged. Due to cross magnetization, the magnetic neutral axis on load, shifts along the
direction of rotation in DC generator and opposite to the direction of rotation in DC motor. If the
brushes remain at their previous positions, then back e.m.f in case of motor or generated e.m.f in
case of generator would reduce and commutation would be accompanied by heavy sparking.
This is because commutation occurs at the coils located on the brushes only, and the coil
undergoing commutation comes under the influence of the alternate pole(changes its location
from north to south pole or vice versa). Hence, the direction of current flowing in the coil also
reverses in a very short duration of time i.e., current changes from + i to – i or vice versa in a
small span of time. This induces a very high magnitude of reactance voltage (L*di/dt) in the coil
which emerges out in the form of heat energy along with sparking, thus damaging the brushes
and commutator segment. To reduce the adverse effects mentioned above and to improve the
machine’s performance, following methods are used:
Brush Shift
A natural solution to the problem appears to shift the brushes along the direction of rotation in
generator action and against the direction of rotation in motor action, this would result into a
reduction in air gap flux. This will reduce the induced voltage in generator and would increase
the speed in motor. The demagnetizing m.m.f (magneto motive force) thus produced is given by:
Where, Ia = armature current, Z = total number of conductors, P = total number of poles, β =
angular shift of carbon brushes (in electrical Degrees). Brush shift has serious limitations, so the
brushes have to be shifted to a new position every time the load changes or the direction of
rotation changes or the mode of operation changes. In view of this, brush shift is limited only to
very small machines. Here also, the brushes are fixed at a position corresponding to its normal
load and the mode of operation. Due to these limitations, this method is generally not preferred.
Inter Pole
The limitation of brush shift has led to the use of inter poles in almost all the medium and large
sized DC machines. Inter poles are long but narrow poles placed in the inter polar axis. They
have the polarity of succeeding pole(coming next in sequence of rotation) in generator action and
proceeding (which has passed behind in rotation sequence) pole in motor action. The inter pole is
designed to neutralize the armature reaction mmf in the inter polar axis. This is because the
direction of armature reaction m.m.f is in the inter polar axis. It also provides commutation
voltage for the coil undergoing commutation such that the commutation voltage completely
neutralizes the reactance voltage (L di/dt). Thus, no sparking takes place.
Inter polar windings are always kept in series with armature, so inter polar winding carries the
armature current ; therefore works satisfactorily irrespective of load, the direction of rotation or
the mode of operation. Inter poles are made narrower to ensure that they influence only the coil
undergoing commutation and its effect does not spread to the other coils. The base of the inter
poles is made wider to avoid saturation and to improve response.
Compensating Winding
Commutation problem is not the only problem in DC machines. At heavy loads, the cross
magnetizing armature reaction may cause very high flux density in the trailing pole tip in
generator action and leading pole tip in the motor action.
Consequently, the coil under this tip may develop induced voltage high enough to cause a
flashover between the associated adjacent commutator segments particularly, because this coil is
physically close to the commutation zone (at the brushes) where the air temperature might be
already high due to commutation process.
This flashover may spread to the neighboring commutator segments, leading ultimately to a
complete fire over the commutator surface from brush to brush. Also, when the machine is
subjected to rapidly fluctuating loads, then the voltage L* di/dt, that appears across the adjacent
commutator segments may reach a value high enough to cause flashover between the adjacent
commutator segments. This would start from the centre of pole as the coil below it possesses the
maximum inductance. This may again cause a similar fire as described above. This problem is
more acute while the load is decreasing in generating action and increasing in motor action as
then, the induced e.m.f and voltage L* di/dt will support each other. The above problems are
solved by use of compensating winding.
Compensating winding consists of conductors embedded in the pole face that run parallel to the
shaft and carry an armature current in a direction opposite to the direction of current in the
armature conductors under that pole arc. With complete compensation the main field is restored.
This also reduces armature circuit’s inductor and improves system [Link]
winding functions satisfactorily irrespective of the load, direction of rotation and mode of
operation. Obviously it is help in commutation as the inter polar winding gets relieved from its
duty to compensate for the armature m.m.f under the pole arc.
NOTE:
1. The cross magnetizing armature reaction effect is mainly caused by armature
conductors which are located under the pole arc. At high loads, this effect of armature
reaction may cause excessive flux density in the trailing pole tip (in generator) and
leading pole tip (in motor). Due to saturation in the pole shoe, the increase in flux
density may be less than the reduction in the flux density in remaining section of the
pole shoe. This would ultimately result into a net reduction in flux per pole. This
phenomenon is thus known as the demagnetizing effect of cross magnetizing armature
reaction, which is further compensated by the use of compensating windings.
2. Inter polar winding and compensating windings are connected in series with the
armature winding but on the opposite sides with respect to armature.
3. The primary duty of inter polar winding is to improve the commutation process, and
that of the compensating winding is to compensate for the increase or decrease in the
net air gap flux i.e., to maintain its constant value.
Types of DC Motor Separately Excited Shunt Series Compound DC
Motor
The direct current motor or the DC motor has a lot of application in today’s field of engineering
and technology. Starting from an electric shaver to parts of automobiles, in all small or medium
sized motoring applications DC motors come handy. And because of its wide range of
application different functional types of dc motor are available in the market for specific
requirements. The types of DC motor can be listed as follows

• DC motor
• Permanent Magnet DC Motor
• Separately Excited DC Motor
• Self Excited DC Motor
• Shunt Wound DC Motor
• Series Wound DC Motor
• Compound Wound DC Motor
• Cumulative compound DC motor
• Short shunt DC Motor
• Long shunt DC Motor
• Differential Compound DC Motor
• Short Shunt DC Motor
• Long Shunt DC Motor
Now let’s do a detailed discussion about all the essential types of dc motor.
Separately Excited DC Motor
As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of dc motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized
from a separate external source of dc current as shown in the figure beside.
From the torque equation of dc motor we know Tg = K a φ Ia So the torque in this case can be
varied by varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia.
Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The permanent magnet DC motor consists of an armature winding as in case of an usual

motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The construction of these types of DC
motor are such that, radially magnetized permanent magnets are mounted on the inner periphery
of the stator core to produce the field flux. The rotor on the other hand has a conventional dc
armature with commutator segments and brushes. The diagrammatic representation of a
permanent magnet dc motor is given below. The torque equation of dc motor suggests Tg = K a φ
Ia. Here φ is always constant, as permanent magnets of required flux density are chosen at the
time of construction and can’t be changed there after. For a permanent magnet dc motor Tg =
Ka1 Ia
Where K a1 = K a.φ which is another constant. In this case the torque of DC Motor can only be
changed by controlling armature supply.
Self Excited DC Motor
In case of self excited dc motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or
partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding, and on this basis its further classified
as:-
1. Shunt wound DC motor.
2. Series wound DC motor.
3. Compound wound DC motor.
Let’s now go into the details of these types of self excited dc motor.
 Shunt Wound DC Motor

In case of a shunt wound dc motor or more specifically shunt wound self excited dc motor, the
field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are connected in parallel to the
armature winding as shown in the figure below.
To understand the characteristic of these types of DC motor, lets consider the basic voltage
equation given by,

[Where E, Eb, Ia, Ra are the supply voltage, back emf, armature current and armature resistance
respectively]

[since back emf increases with flux φ and angular speed ωω]
Now substituting Eb from equation (2) to equation (1) we get,

The torque equation of a dc motor resembles,

This is similar to the equation of a straight line, and we can graphically representing the torque
speed characteristic of a shunt wound self excited dc motor as
The shunt wound dc motor is a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here with the
variation of mechanical load on the output.
Series Wound DC Motor
In case of a series wound self excited dc motor or simply series wound dc motor, the entire
armature current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to the armature
winding. The series wound self excited dc motor is diagrammatically represented below for clear
understanding.

Now to determint the torque speed characteristic of these types of DC motor, lets get to the
torque speed equation.
From the circuit diagram we can see that the voltage equation gets modified to

Where as back emf remains Eb = kaφω

Neglecting saturation we get,

[ since field current = armature current]

From equation (5) & (6)

From this equation we obtain the torque speed characteristic as

In a series wound dc motor, the speed varies with load. And operation wise this is its main
difference from a shunt wound dc motor.
Compound Wound DC Motor
The compound excitation characteristic in a dc motor can be obtained by combining the
operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited dc motor. The compound wound
self excited dc motor or simply compound wound dc motor essentially contains the field
winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure
below
 :
The excitation of compound wound dc motor can be of two types depending on the nature of
compounding.
Cumulative Compound DC Motor

When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main field connected in
series to the armature winding then its called cumulative compound dc motor.

Differential Compound DC Motor

In case of a differentially compounded self excited dc motor i.e. differential compound dc motor,
the arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced by the shunt
field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.

The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and hence does not find much of
a practical application.

The compounding characteristic of the self excited dc motor is shown in the figure below.
Both the cumulative compound and differential compound dc motor can either be of short shunt
or long shunt type depending on the nature of arrangement.
Short Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field
winding then its known as short shunt dc motor or more specifically short shunt type compound
wound dc motor.
Long Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field winding
then it’s known as long shunt type compounded wound dc motor or simply long shunt dc motor.

Short shunt and long shunt type motors have been shown in the diagram below.
Characteristics Of DC Motors
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered for DC motors which are, (i) Torque vs.
armature current (Ta - Ia), (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque. These are
explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by keeping
following two relations in mind.
Ta α Φ.Ia and N α Eb/Φ

Characteristics Of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to armature current and flux, Ta α Φ.Ia. In DC series motors, field winding is
connected in series with armature. Thus, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux Φ is
directly proportional to Ia. Therefore, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2 . At light loads, Ia as
well as Φ is small and hence the torque increases as the square of the armature current.
Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.
After magnetic saturation of the field winding, flux Φ is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportional to Ia only, T α [Link], after magnetic saturation,
Ta-Ia curve becomes straight line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses.
In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature
current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N α Eb/Φ
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and
it may be neglected. Thus, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to Φ. As we know,
flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is also inversely proportional to Ia.
When armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series
motor should never be started without some mechanical load.
But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence speed is low which results in
decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two
characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low and
vice versa.
Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors
Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors we can assume the field flux Φ to be constant. Though at heavy
loads, Φ decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. But as we are
neglecting the change in the flux Φ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current.
Hence the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through origin.
Since, heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started
on a heavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux Φ is assumed constant, we can say N α Eb. But, back emf is also almost constant, the
speed remains constant. But practically, Φ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. But, the
Eb decreases slightly more than Φ, and hence the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed
decreases by 5 to 15% of full load speed only. And hence, a shunt motor can be assumed as a
constant speed motor.
Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor
DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt windings. In a compound motor series
and shunt windings are connected such that series flux is in direction with shunt flux then the
motor is said to be cumulatively compounded. And if series flux is opposite direction as that of
the shunt flux, then the motor is said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both
these types are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor
Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is
likely to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt
winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly
removed. These motors are generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads
are applied like in rolling mills.
(b) Differential compound motor
Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with
increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase slightly
with increase in load. Differential compound motors are not commonly use, but they find limited
applications in experimental and research work.
Starting Methods to limit Starting Current and Torque of DC
Motor
Starting of DC Motor
The starting of DC motor is somewhat different from the starting of all other types of electrical
motors. This difference is credited to the fact that a dc motor unlike other types of motor has a
very high starting current that has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of the armature
winding of dc motor if not restricted to some limited value. This limitation to the starting
current of dc motor is brought about by means of the starter. Thus the distinguishing fact about
the starting methods of dc motor is that it is facilitated by means of a starter. Or rather a device
containing a variable resistance connected in series to the armature winding so as to limit the
starting current of dc motor to a desired optimum value taking into consideration the safety
aspect of the motor.

Now the immediate question in why the DC motor has such high starting current ? To give
an explanation to the above mentioned question let us take into consideration the basic
operational voltage equation of the dc motor given by,

Where E is the supply voltage, Ia is the armature current, Ra is the armature resistance. And the
back emf is given by Eb. Now the back emf, in case of a dc motor, is very similar to the
generated emf of a dc generator as it’s produced by the rotational motion of the current carrying
armature conductor in presence of the field. This back emf of dc motor is given by
and has a major role to play in case of the starting of dc motor. From this equation we can see
that Eb is directly proportional to the speed N of the motor. Now since at starting N = 0, Eb is
also zero, and under this circumstance the voltage equation is modified to

For all practical practices to obtain optimum operation of the motor the armature resistance is
kept very small usually of the order of 0.5 Ω and the bare minimum supply voltage being 220
volts. Even under these circumstance the starting current, Ia is as high as 220/0.5 amp = 440 amp.
Such high starting current of dc motor creates two major problems. 1) Firstly, current of the
order of 400 A has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of the armature winding of dc
motor at the very onset. 2) Secondly, since the torque equation of dc motor is given by

Very high electromagnetic starting torque of DC motor is produced by virtue of the high
starting current, which has the potential of producing huge centrifugal force capable of flying off
the rotor winding from the slots.
Starting Methods of DC Motor
As a direct consequence of the two above mentioned facts i.e high starting current and high
starting torque of DC motor, the entire motoring system can undergo a total disarray and lead
towards into an engineering massacre and non-functionality. To prevent such an incidence from
occurring several starting methods of dc motor has been adopted. The main principal of this
being the addition of external electrical resistance Rext to the armature winding, so as to increase
the effective resistance to Ra + Rext , thus limiting the armature current to the rated value. The
new value of starting armature current is desirably low and is given by.

Now as the motor continues to run and gather speed, the back emf successively develops and
increases, countering the supply voltage, resulting in the decrease of the net working voltage.
Thus now,
At this moment to maintain the armature current to its rated value, Rext is progressively decreased
unless its made zero, when the back emf produced is at its maximum. This regulation of the
external electrical resistance in case of the starting of dc motor is facilitated by means of the
starter.

Starters can be of several types and requires a great deal of explanation and some intricate level
understanding. But on a brief over-view the main types of starters used in the industry today can
be illustrated as:-
1) 3 point starter.
2) 4 point starter.
Used for the starting of shunt wound DC motor and compound wound DC motor.
3 Point Starter | Working Principle and Construction of Three Point
Starter

A 3 point starter in simple words is a device that helps in the starting and running of a shunt
wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor. Now the question is why these types of DC
motors require the assistance of the starter in the first case. The only explanation to that is given
by the presence of back emf Eb, which plays a critical role in governing the operation of the
motor. The back emf, develops as the motor armature starts to rotate in presence of the magnetic
field, by generating action and counters the supply voltage. This also essentially means, that the
back emf at the starting is zero, and develops gradually as the motor gathers speed.

The general motor emf equation E = Eb + [Link],

at starting is modified to E = [Link] as at starting Eb = 0.

Thus we can well understand from the above equation that the current will be dangerously high
at starting (as armature resistance Ra is small) and hence its important that we make use of a
device like the 3 point starter to limit the starting current to an allowable lower value. Let us
now look into the construction and working of three point starter to understand how the
starting current is restricted to the desired value. For that let’s consider the diagram given below
 showing all essential parts of the three point starter.

Construction of 3 Point Starter

Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown
in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown
separately as OFF, 1, 2,3,4,5, RUN. Other than that there are 3 main points, referred to as 1. 'L'
Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.) 2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the
armature winding.) 3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.) And from there it gets
the name 3 point starter. Now studying the construction of 3 point starter in further details
reveals that, the point 'L' is connected to an electromagnet called overload release (OLR) as
shown in the figure. The other end of 'OLR' is connected to the lower end of conducting lever of
starter handle where a spring is also attached with it and the starter handle contains also a soft
iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to move to the other side RUN against the force of the
spring. This spring brings back the handle to its original OFF position under the influence of its
own force. Another parallel path is derived from the stud '1', given to the another electromagnet
called No Volt Coil (NVC) which is further connected to terminal 'F'. The starting resistance at
starting is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC acts as the two protecting
devices of the starter.
Working of Three Point Starter
Having studied its construction, let us now go into the working of the 3 point starter. To start
with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC motor is switched on. Then
handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud No. 1. At this point,
field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets supply through the parallel path provided
to starting resistance, through No Voltage Coil. While entire starting resistance comes in series
with the armature. The high starting armature current thus gets limited as the current equation at
this stage becomes Ia = E/(Ra+Rst ). As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact
with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off the series resistance from the armature circuit as
the motor gathers speed. Finally when the starter handle is in 'RUN' position, the entire starting
resistance is eliminated and the motor runs with normal speed. This is because back emf is
developed consequently with speed to counter the supply voltage and reduce the armature
current. So the external electrical resistance is not required anymore, and is removed for
optimum operation. The handle is moved manually from OFF to the RUN position with
development of speed. Now the obvious question is once the handle is taken to the RUN position
how is it supposed to stay there, as long as motor is running ? To find the answer to this question
let us look into the working of No Voltage Coil.

Working of No Voltage Coil of 3 Point Starter

The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So when field current flows,
the NVC is magnetized. Now when the handle is in the 'RUN' position, soft iron piece connected
to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC, because of flow of
current through it. The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in 'RUN' position
against the force of the spring as long as supply is given to the motor. Thus NVC holds the
handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.
Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the current flow through NVC is affected and it
immediately looses its magnetic property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece on the handle,
attracted. At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle comes back to OFF
position, opening the circuit and thus switching off the motor. So due to the combination of NVC
and the spring, the starter handle always comes back to OFF position whenever there is any
supply problems. Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor from any kind
of abnormality.

Speed Regulation of DC Motor

On application of load the speed of a dc motor decreases gradually. This is not at all desirable.
So the difference between no load and full load speed should be very less. The motor capable of
maintaining a nearly constant speed for varying load is said to have good speed regulation i.e the
difference between no load and full load speed is quite less. The speed regulation of a permanent
magnet DC motor is good ranging from 10 - 15% whereas for dc shunt motor it is somewhat less
than 10 %. DC series motor has poor value of regulation. In case of compound DC motor the
speed regulation for dc cumulative compound is around 25 % while differential compound has
its excellent value of 5 %.
Speed of a DC Motor
The emf equation of DC motor is given by

Here N = speed of rotation in rpm. P = number of poles. A = number of parallel paths. Z = total
no. conductors in armature.

Hence, speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to emf of rotation (E) and inversely
proportional to flux per pole (φ).
Speed Regulation of a DC Motor
The speed regulation is defined as the change in speed from no load to full load, expressed as a
fraction or percentage of full load speed. Therefore, as per definition per unit (p.u) speed
regulation of DC motor is given as,

Similarly, percentage (%) speed regulation is given as,

Where N no load = no load speed and N full lod = full load speed of DC motor. Therefore, Percent
speed regulation = Per unit (p.u) speed regulation X 100 %. A motor which has nearly constant
speed at all load below full rated load, have good speed regulation.

Speed Control of DC Motor

Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for performing the
specific work process. Speed control is a different concept from speed regulation where there is
natural change in speed due change in load on the shaft. Speed control is either done manually by
the operator or by means of some automatic control device.

One of the important features of dc motor is that its speed can be controlled with relative ease.
We know that the expression of speed control dc motor is given as,

Therefore speed (N ) of 3 types of dc motor – SERIES, SHUNT AND COMPOUND can be

controlled by changing the quantities on RHS of the expression. So speed can be varied by
changing (i) terminal voltage of the armature V , (ii) external resistance in armature circuit R and
(iii) flux per pole φ . The first two cases involve change that affects armature circuit and the third
one involves change in magnetic field. Therefore speed control of dc motor is classified as 1)
armature control methods and 2) field control methods.
Speed Control of DC Series Motor
Speed control of dc series motor can be done either by armature control or by field control.
Armature Control of DC Series Motor
Speed adjustment of dc series motor by armature control may be done by any one of the methods
that follow,
1. Armature resistance control method: This is the most common method employed. Here the
controlling resistance is connected directly in series with the supply to the motor as shown in the
fig. diagram The power loss in the control resistance of dc series motor can be neglected because
this control method is utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light load
condition. This method of speed control is most economical for constant torque. This method of
speed control is employed for dc series motor driving cranes, hoists, trains etc. 2. Shunted
armature control: The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series
with the armature is involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the
armature is varies by varying series rheostat R 1 . The exciting current can be varied by varying
the armature shunting resistance R2 . This method of speed control is not economical due to
considerable power losses in speed controlling resistances. Here speed control is obtained over
wide range but below normal speed. Diagram :
3. Armature terminal voltage control: The speed control of dc series motor can be accomplished
by supplying the power to the motor from a separate variable voltage supply. This method
involves high cost so it rarely used.
Field Control of DC Series Motor
The speed of dc motor can be controlled by this method by any one of the following ways –
1. Field diverter method: This method uses a diverter. Here the field flux can be reduced by
shunting a portion of motor current around the series field. Lesser the diverter resistance
less is the field current, less flux therefore more speed. This method gives speed above
normal and the method is used in electric drives in which speed should rise sharply as
soon as load is decreased.
2. Tapped Field control: This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux
and it is done by lowering number of turns of field winding through which current flows.
In this method a number of tapping from field winding are brought outside . This method
is employed in electric traction.

Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor

Speed of dc shunt motor is controlled by the factors stated below
Field Control of DC Shunt Motor
By this method speed control is obtained by any one of the following means –
1. Field rheostat control of DC Shunt Motor: In this method, speed variation is accomplished by
means of a variable resistance inserted in series with the shunt field. An increase in controlling
resistances reduces the field current with a reduction in flux and an increase in speed. This
method of speed control is independent of load on the motor. Power wasted in controlling
resistance is very less as field current is a small value. This method of speed control is also used
in DC compound motor.

Limitations of this method of speed control:

A. Creeping speeds cannot be obtained.

B. Top speeds only obtained at reduced torque

C. The speed is maximum at minimum value of flux, which is governed by the demagnetizing
effect of armature reaction on the field.

2. Field voltage control: This method requires a variable voltage supply for the field circuit
which is separated from the main power supply to which the armature is connected. Such a
variable supply can be obtained by an electronic rectifier.

Armature Control of DC Shunt Motor

Speed control by this method involves two ways . These are :

1. Armature resistance control : In this method armature circuit is provided with a variable
resistance. Field is directly connected across the supply so flux is not changed due to variation of
series resistance. This is applied for dc shunt motor. This method is used in printing press,
cranes, hoists where speeds lower than rated is used for a short period only.
2. Armature voltage control: This method of speed control needs a variable source of voltage
separated from the source supplying the field current. This method avoids disadvantages of poor
speed regulation and low efficiency of armature-resistance control methods. The basic adjustable
armature voltage control method of speed d control is accomplished by means of an adjustable
voltage generator is called Ward Leonard system. This method involves using a motor –
generator (M-G) set. This method is best suited for steel rolling mills, paper machines, elevators,
mine hoists, etc.

Advantages of this method –

A. Very fine speed control over whole range in both directions

B. Uniform acceleration is obtained

C. Good speed regulation

Disadvantages –
A. Costly arrangement is needed , floor space required is more

B. Low efficiency at light loads

Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control

Ward Leonard control system is introduced by Henry Ward Leonard in 1891. Ward Leonard
method of speed control is used for controlling the speed of a DC motor. It is a basic armature
control method. This control system is consisting of a dc motor M_1 and powered by a DC
generator G. In this method the speed of the dc motor (M_1) is controlled by applying variable
voltage across its armature. This variable voltage is obtained using a motor-generator set which
consists of a motor M_2(either ac or dc motor) directly coupled with the generator G. It is a very
widely used method of speed control of DC motor.

Principle of Ward Leonard Method

Basic connection diagram of the Ward Leonard speed control system is shown in the figure
below.

The speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by the generator G. The shunt field
of the motor M1 is connected across the dc supply lines. Now, generator G is driven by the motor
M2 . The speed of the motor M2 is constant. When the output voltage of the generator is fed to the
motor M1 then the motor starts to rotate. When the output voltage of the generator varies then the
speed of the motor also varies. Now controlling the output voltage of the generator the speed of
motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of controlling the output voltage, a field regulator
is connected across the generator with the dc supply lines to control the field excitation. The
direction of rotation of the motor M1 can be reversed by excitation current of the generator and it
can be done with the help of the reversing switch R.S. But the motor-generator set must run in
the same direction.
Advantages of Ward Leonard System
1. It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from zero to normal speed
of the motor).
2. The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the motor easily.
3. The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
4. Speed regulation of DC motor in this ward Leonard system is very good.
Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System
1. The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are required.
2. Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially it is lightly loaded.
Application of Ward Leonard System
This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide and very sensitive
speed control is of a DC motor in both the direction of rotation is required. This speed control
system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes, electric excavators, mine hoists, elevators,
steel rolling mills and paper machines etc.

Losses in DC Machine
As we know “Energy neither can be created nor it can be destroyed, it can only be transferred
from one form to another”. In DC machine, mechanical energy is converted into the electrical
energy. During this process, the total input power is not transformed into output power. Some
part of input power gets wasted in various forms. The foam of this loss may vary from machine
to machine. These losses give in rise in temperature of machine and reduce the efficiency of the
machine. In DC Machine, there are broadly four main categories of energy loss.

Copper Losses or Electrical Losses in DC Machine

The copper losses are the winding losses taking place during the current flowing through the
winding. These losses occur due to the resistance in the winding. In DC machine, there are only
two winding, armature and field winding. Thus copper losses categories in three parts; armature
loss, field winding loss, and brush contact resistance loss. The copper losses are proportional to
square of the current flowing through the winding.
Armature Copper Loss in DC Machine
Armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra Where, Ia is armature current and Ra is armature resistance. These
losses are about 30% of the total losses.
Field Winding Copper Loss in DC Machine
Field winding copper loss = If2 Rf Where, If is field current and Rf is field resistance. These losses
are about 25% theoretically, but practically it is constant.
Brush Contact Resistance Loss in DC Machine
Brush contact loss attributes to resistance between the surface of brush and commutator. It is not
a loss which could be calculated separately as it is a part of variable losses. Generally, it
contributes in both the types of copper losses. So, they are factor in the calculation of above
losses.
Core Losses or Iron Losses in DC Machine
As iron core of the armature is rotating in magnetic field, some losses occurred in the core which
is called core losses. Normally, machines are operated with constant speed, so these losses are
almost constant. These losses are categorized in two form; Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss.
Hysteresis Loss in DC Machine
Hysteresis losses occur in the armature winding due to reversal of magnetization of the core.
When the core of the armature exposed to magnetic field, it undergoes one complete rotation of
magnetic reversal. The portion of armature which is under S-pole, after completing half electrical
revolution, the same piece will be under the N-pole, and the magnetic lines are reversed in order
to overturn the magnetism within the core. The constant process of magnetic reversal in the
armature, consume some amount of energy which is called hysteresis loss. The percentage of
loss depends upon the quality and volume of the iron.
The Frequency of Magnetic Reversal

Where, P = Number of poles N = Speed in rpm

Steinmetz Formula

The Steinmetz formula is for the calculation of hysteresis loss.

Where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient Bmax = Maximum flux Density in armature winding
F = Frequency of magnetic reversals V = Volume of armature in m3 .

Eddy Current Loss in DC Machine

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when an iron core rotates in the
magnetic field, an emf is also induced in the core. Similarly, when armature rotates in magnetic
field, small amount of emf induced in the core which allows flow of charge in the body due to
conductivity of the core. This current is useless for the machine. This loss of current is called
eddy current. This loss is almost constant for the DC machines. It could be minimized by
selecting the laminated core.
Mechanical Losses in DC Machine
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine are called mechanical losses.
These losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the machine like bearing, brushes etc,
and windage losses occurs due to the air inside the rotating coil of the machine. These losses are
usually very small about 15% of full load loss.
Stray Load Losses in DC Machine
There are some more losses other than the losses which have been discussed above. These losses
are called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses are due to the short-circuit current in the
coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to armature and many more losses which are
difficult to find. However, they are taken as 1 % of the whole load power output.
 Introduction

Welcome to another course in the STEP series, Siemens

Technical Education Program, designed to prepare our
distributors to sell Siemens Energy & Automation products
more effectively. This course covers Basics of PLCs and related
products.

Upon completion of Basics of PLCs you should be able to:

• Identify the major components of a PLC and describe

their functions

• Convert numbers from decimal to binary, BCD, and

hexadecimal

• Identify typical discrete and analog inputs and outputs

• Read a basic ladder logic diagram and statement list

• Identify operational differences between different S7-200

models

• Identify the proper manual to refer to for programming or

installation of an S7-200 PLC

• Connect a simple discrete input and output to an S7-200

• Select the proper expansion module for analog inputs and

outputs

• Describe the operation of timers and counters

2
This knowledge will help you better understand customer
applications. In addition, you will be better able to describe
products to customers and determine important differences
between products. You should complete Basics of Electricity
before attempting Basics of PLCs. An understanding of many
of the concepts covered in Basics of Electricity is required
for Basics of PLCs. In addition you may wish to complete
Basics of Control Components. Devices covered in Basics
of Control Components are used with programmable logic
controllers.

If you are an employee of a Siemens Energy & Automation

authorized distributor, fill out the final exam tear-out card and
mail in the card. We will mail you a certificate of completion if
you score a passing grade. Good luck with your efforts.

SIMATIC, STEP 7, STEP 7-Micro, STEP 7-Micro/WIN, PG 702,

and PG 740 are registered trademarks of Siemens Energy &
Automation, Inc.

Other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

3
 PLCs

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to as

programmable controllers, are in the computer family. They are
used in commercial and industrial applications. A PLC monitors
inputs, makes decisions based on its program, and controls
outputs to automate a process or machine. This course is meant
to supply you with basic information on the functions and
configurations of PLCs.

Drive Motors

Lights Pumps

Photo Sensors Pushbutton

Switches

4
Basic PLC Operation PLCs consist of input modules or points, a Central Processing
Unit (CPU), and output modules or points. An input accepts a
variety of digital or analog signals from various field devices
(sensors) and converts them into a logic signal that can be used
by the CPU. The CPU makes decisions and executes control
instructions based on program instructions in memory. Output
modules convert control instructions from the CPU into a digital
or analog signal that can be used to control various field devices
(actuators). A programming device is used to input the desired
instructions. These instructions determine what the PLC will do
for a specific input. An operator interface device allows process
information to be displayed and new control parameters to be
entered.

Pushbuttons (sensors), in this simple example, connected to

PLC inputs, can be used to start and stop a motor connected to
a PLC through a motor starter (actuator).

Motor Starter
(Actuator)

Output
Motor

PLC

Input Start/Stop Pushbuttons

(Sensors)

5
Hard-Wired Control Prior to PLCs, many of these control tasks were solved with
contactor or relay controls. This is often referred to as hard-
wired control. Circuit diagrams had to be designed, electrical
components specified and installed, and wiring lists created.
Electricians would then wire the components necessary to
perform a specific task. If an error was made, the wires had
to be reconnected correctly. A change in function or system
expansion required extensive component changes and rewiring.

M OL T1
L1
M OL T2
460 VAC L2 Motor
M OL T3
L3

OL
1 M
CR

24 VAC
Start
Stop
2 CR

CR

Advantages of PLCs The same, as well as more complex tasks, can be done with
a PLC. Wiring between devices and relay contacts is done in
the PLC program. Hard-wiring, though still required to connect
field devices, is less intensive. Modifying the application and
correcting errors are easier to handle. It is easier to create
and change a program in a PLC than it is to wire and re-wire a
circuit.

Following are just a few of the advantages of PLCs:

• Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions.

• Easier and faster to make changes.
• PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions.
• Diagnostics are centrally available.
• Applications can be immediately documented.
• Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively.

6
Siemens PLCs Siemens makes several PLC product lines in the SIMATIC® S7
family. They are: S7-200, S7-300, and S7-400.

S7-200 The S7-200 is referred to as a micro PLC because of its small

size. The S7-200 has a brick design which means that the
power supply and I/O are on-board. The S7-200 can be used on
smaller, stand-alone applications such as elevators, car washes,
or mixing machines. It can also be used on more complex
industrial applications such as bottling and packaging machines.

S7-300 and S7-400 The S7-300 and S7-400 PLCs are used in more complex
applications that support a greater number of I/O points. Both
PLCs are modular and expandable. The power supply and I/O
consist of separate modules connected to the CPU. Choosing
either the S7-300 or S7-400 depends on the complexity of
the task and possible future expansion. Your Siemens sales
representative can provide you with additional information on
any of the Siemens PLCs.

7
 Number Systems

Since a PLC is a computer, it stores information in the form of

On or Off conditions (1 or 0), referred to as binary digits (bits).
Sometimes binary digits are used individually and sometimes
they are used to represent numerical values.

Decimal System Various number systems are used by PLCs. All number systems
have the same three characteristics: digits, base, weight. The
decimal system, which is commonly used in everyday life, has
the following characteristics:

Ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Base 10
Weights 1, 10, 100, 1000, ...

Binary System The binary system is used by programmable controllers. The

binary system has the following characteristics:

Two digits 0, 1
Base 2
Weights Powers of base 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...)

In the binary system 1s and 0s are arranged into columns. Each

column is weighted. The first column has a binary weight of
0
2 . This is equivalent to a decimal 1. This is referred to as the
least significant bit. The binary weight is doubled with each
succeeding column. The next column, for example, has a weight
1
of 2 , which is equivalent to a decimal 2. The decimal value is
doubled in each successive column. The number in the far left
hand column is referred to as the most significant bit. In this
7
example, the most significant bit has a binary weight of 2 . This
is equivalent to a decimal 128.

8
Converting Binary The following steps can be used to interpret a decimal
to Decimal number from a binary value.

1) Search from least to most significant bit for 1s.

2) Write down the decimal representation of each column
containing a 1.
3) Add the column values.

In the following example, the fourth and fifth columns from the
right contain a 1. The decimal value of the fourth column from
the right is 8, and the decimal value of the fifth column from
the right is 16. The decimal equivalent of this binary number is
24. The sum of all the weighted columns that contain a 1 is the
decimal number that the PLC has stored.

In the following example the fourth and sixth columns from the
right contain a 1. The decimal value of the fourth column from
the right is 8, and the decimal value of the sixth column from
the right is 32. The decimal equivalent of this binary number is
40.

Bits, Bytes, and Words Each binary piece of data is a bit. Eight bits make up one byte.
Two bytes, or 16 bits, make up one word.

9
Logic 0, Logic 1 Programmable controllers can only understand a signal that
is On or Off (present or not present). The binary system is a
system in which there are only two numbers, 1 and 0. Binary 1
indicates that a signal is present, or the switch is On. Binary 0
indicates that the signal is not present, or the switch is Off.

BCD Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD) are decimal numbers where

each digit is represented by a four-bit binary number. BCD is
commonly used with input and output devices. A thumbwheel
switch is one example of an input device that uses BCD. The
binary numbers are broken into groups of four bits, each group
representing a decimal equivalent. A four-digit thumbwheel
switch, like the one shown here, would control 16 (4 x 4) PLC
inputs.

10
Hexadecimal Hexadecimal is another system used in PLCs. The hexadecimal
system has the following characteristics:

16 digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Base 16
Weights Powers of base 16 (1, 16, 256, 4096 ...)

The ten digits of the decimal system are used for the first ten
digits of the hexadecimal system. The first six letters of the
alphabet are used for the remaining six digits.

A = 10 D = 13
B = 11 E = 14
C = 12 F = 15

The hexadecimal system is used in PLCs because it allows the

status of a large number of binary bits to be represented in a
small space such as on a computer screen or programming
device display. Each hexadecimal digit represents the exact
status of four binary bits. To convert a decimal number to a
hexadecimal number the decimal number is divided by the base
of 16. To convert decimal 28, for example, to hexadecimal:

Decimal 28 divided by 16 is 1 with a remainder of 12. Twelve is

equivalent to C in hexadecimal. The hexadecimal equivalent of
decimal 28 is 1C.

The decimal value of a hexadecimal number is obtained by

multiplying the individual hexadecimal digits by the base 16
weight and then adding the results. In the following example
the hexadecimal number 2B is converted to its decimal
equivalent of 43.
0
16 = 1
1
16 = 16
B = 11

11
Conversion of Numbers The following chart shows a few numeric values in decimal,
binary, BCD, and hexadecimal representation.

12
Review 1
1. Identify the following:

2. The binary number system has a base ____________ .

3. The hexadecimal number system has a base

____________ .

4. Convert a decimal 10 to the following:

Binary ____________

BCD ____________

Hexadecimal ____________

13
 Terminology

The language of PLCs consists of a commonly used set

of terms; many of which are unique to PLCs. In order to
understand the ideas and concepts of PLCs, an understanding
of these terms is necessary.

Sensor A sensor is a device that converts a physical condition into an

electrical signal for use by the PLC. Sensors are connected to
the input of a PLC. A pushbutton is one example of a sensor
that is connected to the PLC input. An electrical signal is sent
from the pushbutton to the PLC indicating the condition (open/
closed) of the pushbutton contacts.

Actuators Actuators convert an electrical signal from the PLC into a

physical condition. Actuators are connected to the PLC output.
A motor starter is one example of an actuator that is connected
to the PLC output. Depending on the output PLC signal the
motor starter will either start or stop the motor.

PLC
Output 1 Motor

Motor Starter
(Actuator)

14
Discrete Input A discrete input, also referred to as a digital input, is an input
that is either in an ON or OFF condition. Pushbuttons, toggle
switches, limit switches, proximity switches, and contact
closures are examples of discrete sensors which are connected
to the PLCs discrete or digital inputs. In the ON condition a
discrete input may be referred to as a logic 1 or a logic high. In
the OFF condition a discrete input may be referred to as a logic
0 or a logic low.

A Normally Open (NO) pushbutton is used in the following

example. One side of the pushbutton is connected to the first
PLC input. The other side of the pushbutton is connected to an
internal 24 VDC power supply. Many PLCs require a separate
power supply to power the inputs. In the open state, no voltage
is present at the PLC input. This is the OFF condition. When the
pushbutton is depressed, 24 VDC is applied to the PLC input.
This is the ON condition.

15
Analog Inputs An analog input is a continuous, variable signal. Typical analog
inputs may vary from 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps,
or 0 to 10 volts. In the following example, a level transmitter
monitors the level of liquid in a tank. Depending on the level
transmitter, the signal to the PLC can either increase or
decrease as the level increases or decreases.

Discrete Outputs A discrete output is an output that is either in an ON or OFF

condition. Solenoids, contactor coils, and lamps are examples
of actuator devices connected to discrete outputs. Discrete
outputs may also be referred to as digital outputs. In the
following example, a lamp can be turned on or off by the PLC
output it is connected to.

16
Analog Outputs An analog output is a continuous, variable signal. The output
may be as simple as a 0-10 VDC level that drives an analog
meter. Examples of analog meter outputs are speed, weight,
and temperature. The output signal may also be used on more
complex applications such as a current-to-pneumatic transducer
that controls an air-operated flow-control valve.

CPU The central processor unit (CPU) is a microprocessor system

that contains the system memory and is the PLC decision-
making unit. The CPU monitors the inputs and makes decisions
based on instructions held in the program memory. The
CPU performs relay, counting, timing, data comparison, and
sequential operations.

17
Programming A program consists of one or more instructions that accomplish
a task. Programming a PLC is simply constructing a set of
instructions. There are several ways to look at a program such
as ladder logic, statement lists, or function block diagrams.

Ladder Logic Ladder logic (LAD) is one programming language used with
PLCs. Ladder logic uses components that resemble elements
used in a line diagram format to describe hard-wired control.
Refer to the STEP course Basics of Control Components for
more information on line diagrams.

STEP 2000

Basics of
Control
Components

Ladder Logic Diagram The left vertical line of a ladder logic diagram represents the
power or energized conductor. The output element or instruction
represents the neutral or return path of the circuit. The right
vertical line, which represents the return path on a hard-wired
control line diagram, is omitted. Ladder logic diagrams are read
from left-to-right, top-to-bottom. Rungs are sometimes referred
to as networks. A network may have several control elements,
but only one output coil.

18
 In the example program shown example I0.0, I0.1 and Q0.0
represent the first instruction combination. If inputs I0.0 and
I0.1 are energized, output relay Q0.0 energizes. The inputs could
be switches, pushbuttons, or contact closures. I0.4, I0.5, and
Q1.1 represent the second instruction combination. If either
input I0.4 or I0.5 are energized, output relay Q0.1 energizes.

Statement list A statement list (STL) provides another view of a set of

instructions. The operation, what is to be done, is shown on the
left. The operand, the item to be operated on by the operation,
is shown on the right. A comparison between the statement
list shown below, and the ladder logic shown on the previous
page, reveals a similar structure. The set of instructions in this
statement list perform the same task as the ladder diagram.

Function Block Diagrams Function Block Diagrams (FBD) provide another view of a set of
instructions. Each function has a name to designate its specific
task. Functions are indicated by a rectangle. Inputs are shown
on the left-hand side of the rectangle and outputs are shown on
the right-hand side. The function block diagram shown below
performs the same function as shown by the ladder diagram
and statement list.

19
PLC Scan The PLC program is executed as part of a repetitive process
referred to as a scan. A PLC scan starts with the CPU reading
the status of inputs. The application program is executed using
the status of the inputs. Once the program is completed, the
CPU performs internal diagnostics and communication tasks.
The scan cycle ends by updating the outputs, then starts over.
The cycle time depends on the size of the program, the number
of I/Os, and the amount of communication required.

Software Software is any information in a form that a computer or PLC

can use. Software includes the instructions or programs that
direct hardware.

Hardware Hardware is the actual equipment. The PLC, the programming

device, and the connecting cable are examples of hardware.

20
Memory Size Kilo, abbreviated K, normally refers to 1000 units. When talking
about computer or PLC memory, however, 1K means 1024. This
10
is because of the binary number system (2 =1024). This can be
1024 bits, 1024 bytes, or 1024 words, depending on memory
type.

RAM Random Access Memory (RAM) is memory where data can be

directly accessed at any address. Data can be written to and
read from RAM. RAM is used as a temporary storage area.
RAM is volatile, meaning that the data stored in RAM will be
lost if power is lost. A battery backup is required to avoid losing
data in the event of a power loss.

ROM Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of memory that data can
be read from but not written to. This type of memory is used
to protect data or programs from accidental erasure. ROM
memory is nonvolatile. This means a user program will not lose
data during a loss of electrical power. ROM is normally used to
store the programs that define the capabilities of the PLC.

EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) provides

some level of security against unauthorized or unwanted
changes in a program. EPROMs are designed so that data
stored in them can be read, but not easily altered. Changing
EPROM data requires a special effort. UVEPROMs (ultraviolet
erasable programmable read only memory) can only be erased
with an ultraviolet light. EEPROM (electronically erasable
programmable read only memory), can only be erased
electronically.

Firmware Firmware is user or application specific software burned into

EPROM and delivered as part of the hardware. Firmware gives
the PLC its basic functionality.

21
Putting it Together The memory of the S7-200 is divided into three areas: program
space, data space, and configurable parameter space.

• Program space stores the ladder logic (LAD) or statement

list (STL) program instructions. This area of memory controls
the way data space and I/O points are used. LAD or STL
instructions are written using a programming device such as
a PC, then loaded into program memory of the PLC.

• Data space is used as a working area, and includes memory

locations for calculations, temporary storage of intermediate
results and constants. Data space includes memory
locations for devices such as timers, counters, high-speed
counters, and analog inputs and outputs. Data space can be
accessed under program control.

• Configurable parameter space, or memory, stores either the

default or modified configuration parameters.

22
 PLC selection criteria
PLC selection criteria consists of:

* System (task) requirements.

* Application requirements.
* What input/output capacity is required?
* What type of inputs/outputs are required?
* What size of memory is required?
* What speed is required of the CPU?
* Electrical requirements.
* Speed of operation.
* Communication requirements.
* Software.
* Operator interface.
* Physical environments.

System requirements
* The starting point in determining any solution must be to understand what is to be achieved.
* The program design starts with breaking down the task into a number of simple understandable
elements, each of which can be easily
described.

Application requirements
* Input and output device requirements. After determining the operation of the system, the next
step is to determine what input and
output devices the system requires.
* List the function required and identify a specific type of device.
* The need for special operations in addition to discrete (On/Off) logic.
* List the advanced functions required beside simple discrete logic.

Electrical Requirements
The electrical requirements for inputs, outputs, and system power; When determining the
electrical requirements of a system, consider three items:

 Incoming power (power for the control system);

 Input device voltage; and
 Output voltage and current.

Speed of Operation
How fast the control system must operate (speed of operation).
When determining speed of operation, consider these points:
– How fast does the process occur or machine operate?
– Are there “time critical” operations or events that must be detected?
– In what time frame must the fastest action occur (input device detection to output device
activation)?
– Does the control system need to count pulses from an encoder or flow-meter and respond
quickly?

Communication
If the application requires sharing data outside the process, i.e. communication. Communication
involves sharing application data or status with another electronic device, such as a computer or
a monitor in an operator’s station. Communication can take place locally through a twisted-pair
wire, or remotely via telephone or radio modem.

Operator Interface
If the system needs operator control or interaction. In order to convey information about machine
or process status, or to allow an operator to input data, many applications require operator
interfaces. Traditional operator interfaces include pushbuttons, pilot lights and LED numeric
display. Electronic operator interface devices display messages about machine status in
descriptive text, display part count and track alarms. Also, they can be used for data input.

Physical Environment
The physical environment in which the control system will be located. Consider the environment
where the control system will be located. In harsh environments, house the control system in an
appropriate IP-rated enclosure. Remember to consider accessibility for maintenance,
troubleshooting or reprogramming.

What are the Applications of PLC in Daily Life

and in Industry?
[Link] Applications of PLC
In industrial automation, PLC performs a wide variety of manufacturing
production, monitoring machine tool or equipment, building the system,
and process control functions.

Here are some of the example where PLC has been used.

PLCs are used in,

1. Transportation System likes Conveyor Belt System.

2. Packing and Labeling System in Food & Beverage.
3. Automatic Bottle or Liquid Filling System.
4. Packaging and Labelling System in Pharma Industries.
5. Transportation System like Escalator and Elevator.
6. Industrial Crane Control System for Operation of Overhead
Traveling Crane.
 7. Glass Industries for glass production and recording data.
8. Paper Industries for the production of Pages, Books or Newspapers, etc.
9. Cement Industries for manufacturing or mixing the right quality and
quantities of raw materials, and accuracy of data regarding.
10. Automatic Drainage Water Pump Monitoring and Controlling System.
11. Time and Count-based Control System for an Industrial Machine.
12. Temperature Controller or Humidity by using the Sensors Input to the PLC
system.
13. Fault Detection and Protection of Industrial Machines like an Induction
Motor.
14. Wind Turbine System for Maximum Efficiency, Recording Data, and Safety
Purposes.
15. Conveyor Belt System controls the Sequence of Conveyors and Interlocking
procedure.
16. Energy Management System like Boiler, Ball Milling, Coal Kiln, Shaft Kiln,
etc.
17. Oil and Gas Industries for controlling the Purging Procedure.
2. Power Station Applications of PLC
For the electrical power system analysis, PLC plays operation for maintenance and
other main roles in the power plants and the smart grid system.

18. PLC uses for the Smart Grid System to Monitor and Detect fault conditions.
19. It is used in the Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution System.
20. In the Power Substation, PLC can use the Auto Assembly Line System.
21. Some Electrical Equipment (like Circuit Breaker Tripping, Capacitor
Switching) can be automatically operated with PLC.
22. A Single-Phase or Three-Phase Sequence Detect by using the PLC.
23. In Oil, and Gas an Automation Power Plant, PLC needs for Valve Switching
for Changeover of Fuels, Pilot Light ON or OFF, Flame Safety Checking, Oil
Filtering procedure, and more things.
24. Real-time PLC uses in Underground Coal Mine or Water Level Sensing and
Data Survey.
3. Commercial Applications of PLC
We can see the growth of PLC in commercial control applications. With the use of
PLC, applications can easily operate without or with very minimal manpower or
physical hard work.
Here are some basic commercial application uses PLC.

25. Smart Traffic Control Signal System.

26. Smart Elevator Control System.
27. Fire Detection and Alarm System.
28. Automatic Machine Handling System.
29. Automatic Vehicle Washer System
30. Automated Guided Vehicle System.
31. In the Roller Coasters Machine.
32. Automation System for Well Drainage System.
33. Luggage Handling System. For example, at the Airport.
34. Pressure Controller in Multi-Motor Pump Applications.
35. Sequence or Numerical Counting and Packing System.
36. Mining Equipment Line Detection and Remote Control System.
37. For Wind Turbine Operation, PLCs convert signals from the Wind Speed
and Direction Sensors to better control the Wind Turbines.
4. Domestic Applications of PLC
For the domestic purpose, PLC act as a remote operating device or automatic
sensing device. We can automate some day-to-day activities with PLC.

Here are some useful domestic applications we can automate with PLC.

38. Water Tank Level Control System

39. Car Washing and Parking System.
40. Flashing Light Controlling System.
41. Automatic Door Opening/Closing System.
42. Remote Monitoring Application like Air compressor (AC), Fan.
43. ON/OFF Switching Application like Light, Motor, and More daily life
applications of PLC.
5. Education Applications of PLC
Engineering students mostly prefer the automation system for doing their
academic or research projects. It is a big trend.

As part of the automation projects, you can automate any commercial or

domestic applications using PLC.
Your project should be designed to automate a specific task. It should work
under real-time and with superior reliability and best performance.

What are the major areas of Application of PLC?

PLC works in an industrial automation environment where PLC replaces the relay
system. Now, we will see the top automation companies list where PLC is needed.

Automation Industries:
 Steel Industry
 Glass Industry
 Paper industry
 Textile industry
 Cement Industry
 Chemical industry
 Automobile industry
 Food Processing System
 Oil and Gas Power Plant
 Wind Turbine System
 Robotic Automation System
 Underground Coal Mine and many more industries.
In the above automation industrial area, PLC helps to monitor input and
output and makes the logic-based decision, automatic sequential count, time-
based control system for the automated process.
Architecture And Basic Internal Structure Of PLC
Figure shows the basic internal architecture of a PLC. It consists of a central processing unit
(CPU) containing the system microprocessor, memory, and input/output circuitry. The CPU
controls and processes all the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock that has
a frequency of typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency determines the operating
speed of the PLC and provides the timing and synchronization for all elements in the
system. The information within the PLC is carried by means of digital signals. The internal
paths along which digital signals flow are called buses. In the physical sense, a bus is just a
number of conductors along which electrical signals can flow. It might be tracks on a printed
circuit board or wires in a ribbon cable. The CPU uses the data bus for sending data
between the constituent elements, the address bus to send the addresses of locations for
accessing stored data, and the control bus for signals relating to internal control actions.
The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and the
input/output unit.
 The CPU
The internal structure of the CPU depends on the microprocessor concerned. In general, CPUs have
the following:
 An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) that is responsible for data manipulation and
carrying out arithmetic operations of addition and subtraction and logic operations of AND,
OR, NOT, and EXCLUSIVE-OR.
 Memory, termed registers, located within the microprocessor and used to store
information involved in program execution.
 A control unit that is used to control the timing • of operations.
The Buses
The buses are the paths used for communication within the PLC. The information is transmitted in
binary form, that is, as a group of bits, with a bit being a binary digit of 1 or 0, indicating on/off
states. The term word is used for the group of bits constituting some information. Thus an 8-bit word
 might be the binary number 00100110. Each of the bits is communicated simultaneously along its
own parallel wire. The system has four buses:
 The data bus carries the data used in the processing done by the CPU. A microprocessor
termed as being 8-bit has an internal data bus that can handle 8-bit numbers. It can thus
perform operations between 8-bit numbers and deliver results as 8-bit values.
 The address bus is used to carry the addresses of memory locations. So that each word
can be located in memory, every memory location is given a unique address. Just like houses
in a town are each given a distinct address so that they can be located, so each word location
is given an address so that data stored at a particular location can be accessed by the CPU,
either to read data located there or put, that is, write, data there. It is the address bus that
carries the information indicating which address is to be accessed. If the address bus consists
of eight lines, the number of 8-bit words, and hence number of distinct addresses, is 28 ¼
256. With 16 address lines, 65,536 addresses are possible.
 The control bus carries the signals used by the CPU for control, such as to inform
memory devices whether they are to receive data from an input or output data and to carry
timing signals used to synchronize actions.
The system bus is used for communications between the input/output ports and the input/ output unit.

Memory
To operate the PLC system there is a need for it to access the data to be processed and instructions,
that is, the program, which informs it how the data is to be processed. Both are stored in the PLC
memory for access during processing. There are several memory elements in a PLC system:
 System read-only-memory (ROM) gives permanent storage for the operating system
and fixed data used by the CPU.
 Random-access memory (RAM) is used for the user’s program.
 Random-access memory (RAM) is used for data. This is where information is stored on
the status of input and output devices and the values of timers and counters and other internal
devices. The data RAM is sometimes referred to as a data table or register table. Part of this
memory, that is, a block of addresses, will be set aside for input and output addresses and the
states of those inputs and outputs. Part will be set aside for preset data and part for storing
counter values, timer values, and the like.
 Possibly, as a bolt-on extra module, erasable and programmable read-only-memory
(EPROM) is used to store programs permanently.
The programs and data in RAM can be changed by the user. All PLCs will have some amount of
RAM to store programs that have been developed by the user and program data. However, to prevent
the loss of programs when the power supply is switched off, a battery is used in the PLC to maintain
the RAM contents for a period of time. After a program has been developed in RAM it may be
loaded into an EPROM memory chip, often a bolt-on module to the PLC, and so made permanent. In
addition, there are temporary buffer stores for the input/output channels.

The storage capacity of a memory unit is determined by the number of binary words that it can store.
Thus, if a memory size is 256 words, it can store 256 Â 8 ¼ 2048 bits if 8-bit words are used and 256
 16 ¼ 4096 bits if 16-bit words are used. Memory sizes are often specified in terms of the number
of storage locations available, with 1K representing the number 210, that is, 1024. Manufacturers
supply memory chips with the storage locations grouped in groups of 1, 4, and 8 bits. A 4K Â 1
memory has 4 Â 1 Â 1024 bit locations.

A 4K Â 8 memory has 4 Â 8 Â 1024 bit locations. The term byte is used for a word of length 8 bits.
Thus the 4K Â 8 memory can store 4096 bytes. With a 16-bit address bus we can have 216 different
addresses, and so, with 8-bit words stored at each address, we can have 216 Â 8 storage locations and
so use a memory of size 216 Â 8/210 ¼ 64K Â 8, which might be in the form of four 16K Â 8-bit
memory chips.

Input/Output Unit
The input/output unit provides the interface between the system and the outside world, allowing for
connections to be made through input/output channels to input devices such as sensors and output
devices such as motors and solenoids. It is also through the input/output unit that programs are
entered from a program panel. Every input/output point has a unique address that can be used by the
CPU. It is like a row of houses along a road; number 10 might be the “house” used for an input from
a particular sensor, whereas number 45 might be the “house” used for the output to a particular
motor.

The input/output channels provide isolation and signal conditioning functions so that sensors and
actuators can often be directly connected to them without the need for other circuitry.
Electrical isolation from the external world is usually by means of optoisolators (the term
optocoupler is also often used) shows the principle of an optoisolator. When a digital pulse passes
through the light-emitting diode, a pulse of infrared radiation is produced.

This pulse is detected by the photo transistor and gives rise to a voltage in that circuit. The gap
between the light-emitting diode and the photo transistor gives electrical isolation, but the
arrangement still allows for a digital pulse in one circuit to give rise to a digital pulse in another
circuit.

The digital signal that is generally compatible with the microprocessor in the PLC is 5 V DC.
However, signal conditioning in the input channel, with isolation, enables a wide range of input
signals to be supplied to it (see Chapter 3 for more details). A range of inputs might be available with
a larger PLC, such as 5 V, 24 V, 110 V, and 240 V digital/discrete, that is, on/ off, signals. A small
PLC is likely to have just one form of input, such as 24 V.

The output from the input/output unit will be digital with a level of 5 V. However, after signal
conditioning with relays, transistors, or triacs, the output from the output channel might be a 24 V,
100 mA switching signal; a DC voltage of 110 V, 1 A; or perhaps 240 V, 1 A AC or 240 V, 2 A AC,
from a triac output channel. With a small PLC, all the outputs might be of one type, such as 240 V, 1
A AC. With modular PLCs, however, a range of outputs can be accommodated by selection of the
modules to be used.
 Outputs are specified as being of relay type, transistor type, or triac type:
 With the relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate a relay and is able
to switch currents of the order of a few amperes in an external circuit. The relay not only
allows small currents to switch much larger currents but also isolates the PLC from the
external circuit. Relays are, however, relatively slow to operate. Relay outputs are suitable for
AC and DC switching. They can withstand high surge currents and voltage transients.
 The transistor type of output uses a transistor to switch current through the external
circuit. This gives a considerably faster switching action. It is, however, strictly for DC
switching and is destroyed by over current and high reverse voltage. For protection, either a
fuse or built-in electronic protection is used. Optoisolators are used to provide isolation.
 Triac outputs, with optoisolators for isolation, can be used to control external loads that
are connected to the AC power supply. It is strictly for AC operation and is very easily
destroyed by over current. Fuses are virtually always included to protect such outputs.
Sourcing and Sinking
The terms sourcing and sinking are used to describe the way in which DC devices are connected to a
PLC. With sourcing, using the conventional current flow direction as from positive to negative, an
input device receives current from the input module, that is, the input module is the source of the
current. With sinking, using the conventional current flow direction, an input device supplies current
to the input module, that is, the input module is the sink for the current. If the current flows from the
output module to an output load, the output module is referred to as sourcing. If the current flows to
the output module from an output load, the output module is referred to as sinking
It is important know the type of input or output concerned so that it can be correctly connected to the
PLC. Thus, sensors with sourcing outputs should be connected to sinking PLC inputs and sensors
with sinking outputs should be connected to sourcing PLC inputs. The interface with the PLC will
not function and damage may occur if this guideline is not followed.
 Input/Output processing and PLC Programming Concept
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are the major components in industrial automation and
control systems. The controlling nature of PLC is ranging from simple- push button switching to
a single motor to several complex control structures. The PLC programming is an important task
of designing and implementing control application depending on customers need. A PLC
program consists of a set of instructions either in textual or graphical form, which represents the
logic to be implemented for specific industrial realtime applications.

A dedicated PLC programming software comes from a PLC hardware of specific manufacturer
that allows entry and development of user application code, which can be finally download to
the PLC hardware. This software also ensures Human Machine Interface (HMI) as a graphical
representation of variables. Once this program gets downloaded to the PLC and if the PLC is
placed in Run mode, then the PLC continuously works according to the program. Before going
to the program of the PLC, let us know the basics of the PLC programming tutorial and its basic
concepts.

PLC Programming Basics

A CPU of the PLC executes two different programs:

1. The Operating System

2. The User Program

The Operating System

The operating system organizes all the functions, operations and sequences of the CPU that are
not associated with a control task. The OS tasks include

 Handling a hot restart and warm restart

 Updating and outputting the process image tables of input and outputs
 Executing the user program
 Detecting and calling the interrupts
 Managing the memory areas
 Establishing communication with programmable devices
 PLC programming Basics

The User Program

It is a combination of various functions which are required to process an automated task. This
must be created by the users and need to be downloaded to the CPU of the PLC. Some of the
tasks of the user program include:

 Initiating all the conditions for starting the specified task

 Reading and evaluating all binary and analog input signals
 Specifying output signals to all binary and analog output signals
 Executing interrupts and handling errors

In present industrial automation sector, there are several leading PLC manufactures that develop
typical PLC’s ranging from small to high-end PLC’s. Each and every PLC manufacturer has its
own dedicated software to program and configure the PLC hardware. But the PLC programming
language is varied depending on the manufacturers. Some manufacturers have common
programming languages and some others have dissimilar. Some of the standard programming
languages of PLC are basically of two types, which are further sub-divided into several types,
which are as follows:

[Link] language

 Instructions List (IL)

 Structured Text (ST)

2. Graphical language

 Ladder Diagrams (LD)

 Function Block Diagram (FBD)
 Sequential Function Chart (SFC)

Compared with text based languages, graphical languages are preferred by many users to
program a PLC due to their simple and convenient programming features. All the necessary
functions and functional blocks are available in the standard library of each PLC software. These
function blocks include timers, counters, strings, comparators, numeric, arithmetic, bit-shift,
calling functions, and so on.

PLC Programming Devices

Various types of programming devices are used to enter, modify and troubleshoot a PLC
program. These programming terminal devices include handheld and PC based devices. In the
handheld programming device method, a proprietary device is connected to PLC through a
connecting cable. This device consists of a set of keys that allows to enter, edit and dump the
code into the PLC. These handheld devices consist of small display to make the instruction that
has been programmed visible. These are compact and easy to use devices, but these handheld
devices have limited capabilities.

PLC Programming Devices

Most popularly a Personal Computer (PC) is used for programming the PLC in conjunction with
the software given by the manufacturer. By using this PC we can run the program in either online
or offline mode, and can also edit, monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot the program of the PLC.
The way of transferring the program to the PLC is shown in the above figure wherein the PC
consists of program code corresponding to control application which is transferred to the PLC
CPU via programming cable.

Ladder Logic PLC Programming

Ladder Logic PLC Programming

Among several programming languages ladder logic diagram is the most basic and simplest form
of programming the PLC. Before going to program the PLC with this language, one should know
some basic information about it. The below figure shows the hardwired-ladder diagram wherein
the same lamp load is controlled by two push button switches, In case if any one of the switches
gets closed, the lamp glows. Here two horizontal lines are called rungs which are connected
between two vertical lines called rails. Each rung establishes the electrical continuity between
positive (L) and negative rails (N) so that the current flows from the input to output devices.
Some of the symbols used in ladder logic programming are shown in the figure.

Input switches are types include normally closed and normally opened as shown above. In
addition to above given functional symbols, there are several functions like timer, counter, PID,
etc., which are stored in the standard library to program complex tasks.

Step-By-Step Procedure for Programming PLC Using Ladder Logic

Step By Step Procedure for Programming PLC using Ladder Logic

The procedure for programming a PLC for a certain application depends on the type of standard
manufacturer software tool and the type of control application. But in order to give a basic
guidance to the students, this atrticle provides a simple approach of designing control application
in PLC programming software, as given below But this way of programming doesn’t exactly fit
into all the types of programming tools and control applications.

Step 1: Analyze and Get the Idea of Control Application

The primary step to program the PLC is to get the idea for which you are going to develop an
application-based program. If you are driving a line follower robot by the use of DC motor when
the push button is pressed. This status must be displayed by the LED light when the motor gets
turn on. The motor is also attached with a sensor (Here it is considered as another switch) that
detects obstacles, so when this turned on, the motor should be turned off. And correspondingly,
if the motor switched off, the buzzer should be turned on.
 PLC Control Application

Step 2: List All the Conditions and Get the Design using Flowchart

The variables of the above project are M: Motor, A: Input Switch 1, B: Input Switch 2, L:LED
and Bu: Buzzer, and the designing of the logic is easy with the implementation of flow chart,
which is given below for the above application.

Flowchart of PLC Programming

Step3: Open and Configure the PLC Programming Software

Open the programming software installed in the PC that comes with PLC hardware. Select the
hardware model of the PLC in the software and configure it with appropriate input and output
modules. Select the ladder language (LD) from the list of the programming languages, and
choose the hardware processor and give a name for the program.
 PLC Programming Software

Step 4: Add the Required Rungs and Address Them

Add the required rungs based on the control application logic and give the address to the each
and every input and outputs. The ladder logic diagram of the above discussed example is given
below.

Example of Ladder Logic Program

Step 5: Check the Errors and Simulate It

Locate the Online section in the menu bar and select Online. Check for the errors and make
necessary changes after selecting Offline. Again, go online and select the Run option to simulate
it.

Step6: Download the Program to PLC CPU Memory

After the successful simulation of the program, download the program to CPU by selecting the
Download option through a network or communication cable.

This is about the PLC programming basics and its procedural steps. We hope that the given
content is clear and easy for understanding. It is also possible to know and understand it better
with specified software of particular PLC like RSLogix 500, Codesys, step 7, etc. You can share
your views, suggestions on PLC programming or if you want any help pertaining to the examples
, then write to us in the comment section below.
What is Numerical Control Machine?
Numerical control, popularly known as the NC is very commonly used in
the machine tools. Numerical control is defined as the form of
programmable automation, in which the process is controlled by the
number, letters, and symbols. In case of the machine tools this
programmable automation is used for the operation of the machines.

In other words, the numerical control machine is defined as the

machined that is controlled by the set of instructions called as the
program. In numerical control method the numbers form the basic
program instructions for different types of jobs; hence the name
numerical control is given to this type of programming. When the type of
job changes, the program instructions of the job also change. It is easier
to write the new instructions for each job, hence NC provides lots of
flexibility in its use.

The NC technology can be applied to wide variety of operations like

drafting, assembly, inspection, sheet metal working, etc. But it is more
prominently used for various metal machining processes like turning,
drilling, milling, shaping etc. Due to NC all the machining operations can
be performed at the fast rate resulting in bulk manufacturing becoming
quite cheaper.

Brief History of the NC

The invention of numerical control has been due to the pioneering works
of John T. Parsons in the year 1940, when he tried to generate a curve
automatically by milling cutters by providing coordinate motions. In the
late 1940s Parsons conceived the method of using punched cards
containing coordinate position system to control a machine tool. The
machine directed to move in small increments and generate the desired
finish. In the year, 1948, Parons demonstrated this concept to the US Air
Force, who sponsored the series of project at laboratories of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After lots of research MIT
was able to demonstrate first NC prototype in the year 1952 and in the
next year they were able to prove the potential applications of the NC.
Soon the machine tool manufacturers began their own efforts to
introduce commercial NC units in the market. Meanwhile, the research
continued as MIT, who were able to discover Automatically Programmed
Tools, known as APT language that could be used for programming the
NC machines. The main aim of APT language was to provide the means
to the programmer by which they can communicate the machining
instructions to the machine tools in easier manner using English like
statements. The APT language is still used in widely in the
manufacturing industry and a number of modern programming
languages are based on the concepts of APT.

Advent of the CNC Machines

In the initial years of NC, punched tapes were for feeding the instructions
to the machine tools via the control unit. The APT language also marked
the arrival of the computer numerical controlled machines, popularly
known as the CNC machines. Another language, PRONTO, was
discovered by Parick Hanratty, who carried out various experiments at
GE and released the language in the year 1958.

In CNC machines programs are fed in the computer was used to control
the operations of the machines. Thus the control unit used that would
read the punched cards in the NC machines was replaced by the
microcomputer in the CNC machines. The CNC brought major revolution
in the manufacturing industry. The next development has been the
combination of computer aided manufacturing (CAM) and computer
aided designing (CAD) called as CAD/CAM.

Components of the Numerical Control System

There are three important components of the numerical control or NC
system. These are:

1. Program of instructions
2. Controller unit, also called as the machine control unit (MCU) and
3. Machine tool

All these have been shown in the figure below and also described in the
subsequent sections.
Parts of the Numerical Control Machine
 1. Program of Instructions

The typical desktop program gives the instructions to the computers to

perform certain functions. The program of instructions of the NC
machine is the step-by-step set of instructions that tells the machines
what it has to do. These instructions can tell the machine to turn the
piece of metal to certain diameter, drill the hole of certain diameter up to
certain length, form certain shape etc. The set of instructions are coded
in numerical or symbolic form and written on certain medium that can be
interpreted by the controller unit of the NC machine. The mediums
commonly used earlier for writing the instructions were punched cards,
magnetic tapes and 35mm motion picture film, but now 1 inch wide
punched tape is used more commonly.

The program instructions are written by the expert who has programming
knowledge as well the machining knowledge. The person should know
the various steps of the machining required to manufacture a particular
product and should be able to write these steps in the form of the
program that can be understood by the control unit of the NC machine,
which would eventually direct the machine tool to perform the required
machining operations.

One can also input the instructions directly into the controller unit
manually, this method is called as manual data input (MDI), which is
used for very simple jobs. Then there is direct numerical control method
(DNC) in which the machines are controlled by the computers by direct
link omitting the tape reader.

2. Controller Unit or Machine Controller Unit (MCU)

The controller unit is most vital parts part of the NC and CNC machines.
The controller unit is made of the electronics components. It reads and
interprets the program of instructions and converts them in the
mechanical actions of the machine tool. Thus the controller unit forms an
important link between the program and the machine tool. The control
unit operates the machines as per the set of instructions given to it.

The typical control unit comprises of tape reader, a date buffer, signal
output channels to the machine tools, feedback channel from the
machine tool, and the sequence control to coordinate the overall
machining operation.

Initially, the set of instructions from the punched tape are read by the
tape reader, which is sort of the electromechanical devise. The data from
the tape is stored into the data buffer in form of logical blocks of
instructions with each block resulting in certain sequence of operations.
The controller sends the instructions to the machine tool via signal
output channels that are connected to the servomotors and other
controls of the machines. The feedback channels ensure that the
instructions have been executed by the machine correctly. The
sequence control part of the controller unit ensures that all the
operations are executed in the proper sequence.

One important thing to note about the controller unit here is that all the
modern NC machines are equipped with the microcomputer that acts as
the controller unit. The program is fed into the computer directly and the
computer controls the working the machine tool. Such machines are
called as Computer Controller Machines (CNC) machines.

3. Machine Tool

It is the machine tool that performs the actual machining operations. The
machine tool can be any machine like lathe, drilling machine, milling
machine etc. The machine tool is the controlled part of the NC system. In
case of the CNC machines, the microcomputer operates the machine as
per the set of instructions or the program.

The NC machine also have the control panel or control console that
contains the dials and switches using which the operator runs the NC
machine. There are also displays to display information to the user. Most
of the modern NC machines are now called as the CNC machines.

What is the CNC Machine?

Now that we have seen what the NC machine is and its various parts,
it is easier to understand what the CNC machine is. CNC is the short
form for Computer Numerical control. We have seen that the NC
machine works as per the program of instructions fed into the controller
unit of the machine. The CNC machine comprises of the mini computer
or the microcomputer that acts as the controller unit of the machine.
While in the NC machine the program is fed into the punch cards, in
CNC machines the program of instructions is fed directly into the
computer via a small board similar to the traditional keyboard.
In CNC machine the program is stored in the memory of the computer.
The programmer can easily write the codes, and edit the programs as
per the requirements. These programs can be used for different parts,
and they don’t have to be repeated again and again.

Compared to the NC machine, the CNC machine offers greater

additional flexibility and computational capability. New systems can be
incorporated into the CNC controller simply by reprogramming the unit.
Because of its capacity and the flexibility the CNC machines are called
as “soft-wired” NC.

CNC Machine
How the CNC Machine Works?
The CNC machine comprises of the computer in which the program is
fed for cutting of the metal of the job as per the requirements. All the
cutting processes that are to be carried out and all the final dimensions
are fed into the computer via the program. The computer thus knows
what exactly is to be done and carries out all the cutting processes. CNC
machine works like the Robot, which has to be fed with the program and
it follows all your instructions.
Some of the common machine tools that can run on the CNC are: Lathe,
Milling machines, Drilling Machine etc. The main purpose of these
machines is to remove some of the metal so as to give it proper shape
such as round, rectangular, etc. In the traditional methods these
machines are operated by the operators who are experts in the
operation of these machines. Most of the jobs need to be machined
accurately, and the operator should be expert enough to make the
precision jobs. In the CNC machines the role of the operators is
minimized. The operator has to merely feed the program of instructions
in the computer, load the required tools in the machine, and rest of the
work is done by the computer automatically. The computer directs the
machine tool to perform various machining operations as per the
program of instructions fed by the operator.

You don’t have to worry about the accuracy of the job; all the CNC
machines are designed to meet very close accuracies. In fact, these
days for most of the precision jobs CNC machine is compulsory. When
your job is finished, you don’t even have to remove it, the machine does
that for you and it picks up the next job on its own. This way your
machine can keep on doing the fabrication works all the 24 hours of the
day without the need of much monitoring, of course you will have to feed
it with the program initially and supply the required raw material.

Most of the manufacturing companies are now equipped with the CNC
machines as the markets have got very competitive; however, getting
the expert labors for operating these machines is becoming quite
difficult. Even the machine operators of these days prefer to operate the
machine by programming instead of operating it manually. In most of the
machine tools training institutes the new operators are taught manual
machining as well as CNC machining and programming.

Though the NC machines worked automatically as per the program fed

in the punched tape and though they increased the productivity, a
number of problems were associated with them. These problems posed
a major obstacle in the further development of the NC machines. With
the introduction of the computers in the NC machines their further
developments were enabled and these automatic machines came to be
popularly known as the CNC (computer numerical control) machines.
Problems Associated with the Conventional NC
Machines
Here are some of the problems associated with the conventional NC
machines:

1) Mistakes related with part programming (programming for the parts to

be manufactured): When the programs of instructions related to the
particular part to be manufactured are written on the punched tape, the
syntax or numerical mistakes are quite common. The NC tape is not
completed correctly in a single pass and at least three passes are
required to get the correct program written. Another major problem with
the part programming is achieving the best sequence of steps required
for the machining the part.

2) Nonoptimal speed and feeds: For most economic manufacturing of the

object from the raw material it should be given optimum speed and feeds
during manufacturing. The conventional numerical control does not
provide opportunity to change the speeds and feeds during the cutting
operations, so the programmer is compelled to set the speeds and feeds
for the worst-case conditions that can result in highly expensive
manufacturing due to wastages, and low quality jobs. This also results in
manufacturing of the jobs at lower than optimum productivity.

3) Punched tape: The punched, which is made up of paper and on which

the program is written is the problem in itself. This tape is fragile and
susceptible to wear and tear so it has short life and cannot be reliable
enough for the repeated use. Instead of paper, other media like Mylar
can be used for writing the program of instructions, but these materials
are quite expensive.

4) Unreliable tape reader: The tape reader reads the program of

instructions from the punched tape, but it is considered to be highly
unreliable hardware component of the NC machine. When the NC
machine breaks down the first thing the maintenance personnel checks
is the tape reader.

5) The inflexible controller: The conventional NC machine has the

controller unit which is hard wired and the making the changes in the
controls of the machines is a tough task. The controller used in the CNC
machines is the computer, which is highly flexible.

6) Important information: The conventional NC machine cannot provide

crucial information to the operator and the supervisor like the number of
pieces manufactured, tools changes and others.

The problems associated with the NC machines have been solved over
the time with the improvement in the NC technology mostly due to
advancement in the electronics. The major change obviously came when
mini or microcomputers were introduced in the NC system. The
computers have had major impact on the NC system and with their
introduction the whole technology has come to be known as the CNC
(computer numerical control) technology. For the common man and also
to the engineers the automatic machine tools are now known by the
name CNC machines and not the NC machines.

Advantages of the CNC Machines

There are various valid reasons for the popularity of the CNC machines
over the NC machines, let us see some of them.

1) Part program tape and tape reader: In the older CNC machines the
part program tape and the tape reader is still required, but they are used
only for feeding the program into the memory of the computer. Once the
program is saved into the memory, the tape is no more required and the
program stored in the memory can be used repeatedly. Thus the tape
and the tape reader that poses the major maintenance problems are
done away with. In fact the latest CNC machine don’t even require the
tape and tape reader, for the program of instructions are fed directly into
the mini or microcomputer via the control panel of the computer.

2) Editing the program: Since the program of instructions is saved in the

computer memory, they can be edited and changed as per the
requirements. Thus the CNC system is highly flexible. One can also
make necessary changes in the program for providing variable speeds
and feeds for the manufacture of the jobs resulting in economic
manufacturing. Even the NC tape used for the programming in CNC
machines can be corrected and optimized since it allows changes in the
tool path, speed, feed etc.

3) Metric conversion: The CNC machine allows the conversion of tapes

prepared in the metric system into the SI system of measurements. Thus
programmer does not have to re-enter the whole program of instructions
merely because of the different units of measurements used in the
program.

4) Highly flexible: The CNC machines are highly flexible. One can easily
make the changes in the program and store them as the new program.
One can also introduce new control options like the new interpolation
scheme quite easily. It is easier to make updates in the CNC machines
with lesser cost; hence risk of the obsolescence of the CNC machine is
reduced.

5) Easier programming: The programs are written in the CNC machine

using language which has statements similar to the ordinary English
language statements. The programmer can easily master the CNC
programming language and use it for the wide range of the machining
operations of the job. The programmer can set the various dimension of
the job, the machining operations to be carried out and their sequence,
the amount of metal to be removed in each cutting operation, the speed
of cutting, etc. The program of instructions is written as per the available
size of the raw materials and also the surface finish required for the final
finished job. Some of the programs take the form of the macro
subroutines stored in the memory of the CNC machine and the
programmer can use them frequently whenever required. Some of the
programs are stored in the library and they can be used wherever
required completely or as a small part of the big program.

These days the CNC machines are found in almost all industries, from a
small scale industry to big companies. There is hardly any facet of
manufacturing that is not touched by the automated CNC machining
center. Everyone involved in the manufacturing should know what a
CNC machine can do for their company. Due to extensive applications of
CNC machines in various industries, there is a great surge in the
demand of the CNC programmers. To meet these demands a number of
schools have come up that teach the operation and programming of the
CNC machines.

CNC Machine Tools

Some Industries where CNC Machining Centers are
used
Here are some of the many industries where the CNC machining centers
are used.

Industries for removing metal: The metal removing industries remove the
metal from the raw material to give it the desired as per the
requirements. These can be the automotive industries for making the
shafts, gears, and many other parts. It can be manufacturing industries
for making the various rounded, square, rectangular, threaded and other
jobs. There are many other industries where the metal removal works
are performed. All these metal removal works are performed by different
machine tools like lathe, milling machine, drilling machine, boring
machine, shaping machine, reamer, etc. Traditionally these machines
are operated by the operators, but the CNC versions of all these
machines are now used extensively. You can carryout almost all
machining operations with the CNC machining centers. You can also
carry out all the turning operations such as facing, boring, turning,
grooving, knurling, and threading on your CNC turning centers. On your
CNC grinders you can carry out the grinding of the internal diameter,
outer diameter, and also the flat surfaces. The Contour Grinding
technology enables you to grind surfaces of all shapes.

Industries for Fabricating Metals: In many industries thin plates like steel
plates are required for various purposes, in fabrications industry the
machining operations are performed on such plates. In these industries
the CNC machines are used for various machining operations like
shearing, flame or plasma cutting, punching, laser cutting, forming, and
welding and many other applications. To bring the plates to their final
shape CNC lasers and CNC plasma cutters are used commonly. To
punch the holes in the plates of all sizes CNC turret punch presses are
used. And if you want to bend the plate so as to give it a final shape, you
can use CNC press brakes. In some cases the CNC back gages are
coupled with the shearing machines, this enables controlling the length
of the plate to be sheared as for different applications.

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) Industry: The EDM machines

remove the metal by creating the sparks that burn the metal. There are
two types of EDM with the CNC automation – Vertical EDM and Wire
EDM. The Vertical EDM needs an electrode of the shape and size of the
cavity that is be made in the job. Wire EDM is used to make the punch
and die combinations for the dies set that are used in the industries
where fabrication is done.

Other Industries where CNC machines are used: CNC machines are also
used extensively in the wood working industries to perform various
operations like routing (similar to milling) and drilling. CNC technology is
also used in number of lettering and engraving systems. There are also
CNC machines for the electrical industry such as CNC coil winders, and
CNC terminal location and soldering machines.

In whichever the industry you go you are sure to find some or the other
type of the CNC machine. The progress made by the manufacturing
sector is mainly due to the advancements in the CNC technology.