Learning, Remembering,

4
and Knowing

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:

4-1 Describe how conditioning results in learning. 4-3 Explain how our brains process and store
information about brands in our memory.
4-2 Summarize how we learn about products and
consumption practices by observing others’ 4-4 Discuss how knowledge about brands is organized
behavior. in our brains.

A
h, Sunday morning! The sun is shining, the birds are singing, and Joe is feeling
groovy! He puts on his vintage Levi’s 501 jeans (circa 1968) and his Beatles
T-shirt and saunters down to the kitchen. He’s just returned from his college
reunion. Just being back at his old campus haunts brought up tons of memories. When
he walked into the familiar business school lobby, he found that he was able to remember
names of former classmates, a few professors, and even some of the classes he took so
many years ago as if it was yesterday. Time to hit Facebook to follow up on some of the
old classmates he saw at the party—for sure his old posse hasn’t discovered Instagram
(much less TikTok) quite yet! Joe cranks up the Lava Lamp, throws a Grateful Dead
record on the turntable (ah, the sublime joys of vinyl), and sits back on his Barcalounger
as he clutches a huge bowl filled to the brim with his all-time favorite cereal, Cap’n
Crunch. He reaches for his laptop—let the memories begin!

OBJECTIVE 4-1 How Do We Learn?

Describe how
conditioning results Learning refers to the acquisition of information, behaviors,
in learning.
or abilities. Learning can happen through direct experience
but also by observing others.1 And it can happen passively or
actively. We learn even when we don’t try: We recognize many brand names and hum
many product jingles, for example, even for products we don’t personally use. We call
this casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge incidental learning.
Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world constantly updates Source: David South/Alamy Stock Photo
as we are exposed to new stimuli and as we receive ongoing feedback that allows us to
modify our behavior when we find ourselves in similar situations later. The concept of
learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between
a stimulus, such as a product logo (e.g., Lululemon), and a response (e.g., “being
comfortable and stylish”) to a complex series of cognitive activities (e.g., writing an
essay on learning for a consumer behavior exam).
Psychologists who study learning advance several theories to explain the learning pro-
cess. These theories range from those that focus on simple stimulus–response connections 89
90 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

(behavioral theories) to perspectives that regard learning as a set of internal mental

­processes that acquire and construct knowledge from observing what others say and
do (cognitive theories). It’s important for marketers to understand these theories as well
because basic learning principles are at the heart of many consumer purchase decisions.

Behavioral Learning Theories

Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of
responses to external events. Psychologists who subscribe to this viewpoint do not
focus on internal thought processes. Instead, they approach the mind as a “black box”
and emphasize the observable aspects of behavior. The observable aspects consist of
things that go into the box (the stimuli or events perceived from the outside world) and
things that come out of the box (the responses, or reactions to these stimuli).
Two major approaches to learning represent this view: classical conditioning and
instrumental conditioning. According to the behavioral learning perspective, the feed-
back we receive as we go through life shapes our experiences. Similarly, we respond
to brand names, scents, jingles, and other marketing stimuli because of the learned
connections we form over time. People also learn that actions they take result in
rewards and punishments; this feedback influences the way they will respond in similar
situations in the future. Consumers who receive compliments on a product choice will
be more likely to buy that brand again, whereas those who get food poisoning at a new
restaurant are not likely to patronize that restaurant in the future.

Classical Conditioning
As you can see in Figure 4.1, classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits
a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its
own. Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because we associate
it with the first stimulus. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who conducted research
on digestion in animals, first demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced
classically conditioned learning when he paired a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a

BEFORE CONDITIONING

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Neutral stimulus No response

DURING CONDITIONING AFTER CONDITIONING

Repeated exposures Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)

Figure 4.1 How Classical Conditioning Works

Source: Designs Stock/Shutterstock; William Perugini/Shutterstock; Alexander Lysenko/Shutterstock.
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 91

stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder
into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was
naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned
stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate
the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only. The
drooling of these canine consumers because of a sound, now linked to feeding time,
was a conditioned response (CR).
This basic form of classical conditioning that Pavlov demonstrated primarily
applies to responses to visual and olfactory cues that induce hunger, thirst, sexual
arousal, and other basic drives. When marketers consistently pair these cues with
conditioned stimuli, such as brand names, consumers may learn to feel hungry, thirsty,
or aroused when they encounter these brand cues at a later point.
Recent developments in conditioning research show that
learning is even more effective through evaluative condi-
tioning.2 Instead of associating the UCS with a single acti-
vating stimulus, the UCS is paired with a series of different
stimuli that all trigger the same type of emotional response.
For instance, a study showed that pairing a Belgian beer with
a series of images of people having fun across several activi-
ties such as skiing led to stronger and longer lasting condi-
tioning effects: The participants believed the beer was also
more fun when they encountered it in these situations.
Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the
conditioned (CS) and unconditioned (UCS) stimuli have been
paired a number of times.3 Repeated exposures—repetition—
increase the strength of stimulus–response associations and
prevent the decay of these associations in memory. Some
Apple does a great job of placing its brands in the hands of
research indicates that the intervals between exposures may
likeable characters in TV shows and movies. In this scene from the
influence the effectiveness of this strategy as well as the type of popular TV show, Superstore, you can clearly see the company’s
medium the marketer uses; the most effective repetition strat- brand logo on the product.
egy is a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms Source: Trae Patton/©NBC/Courtesy Everett Collection
of media that are more and less involving, such as television
advertising complemented by print media.4
And it turns out that due to the process of evaluative
conditioning, a marketer can associate a brand with a diverse
set of images or associations that all trigger the same emotional
reaction. This is also a great way to create longer-lasting
associations. For instance, if you want people to associate a brand
with warm feelings, you might feature puppies in one ad, a cozy
fire in a log cabin in a different ad, and a laughing baby in another
ad. In this way, people associate your brand with “warm fuzzy
feelings” rather than just “cute puppies” or “laughing babies.”
Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product
slogans that companies repeat so often they are etched in con-
sumers’ minds. Conditioning will not occur or will take lon-
ger if the CS is only occasionally paired with the UCS. One
result of this lack of association is extinction, which happens
when the effects of prior conditioning diminish and finally
disappear. This can occur when a product is overexposed in
the marketplace so that its original allure is lost. The Izod Lacoste polo shirt, with its distinctive crocodile crest,
The Izod Lacoste polo shirt, with its distinctive crocodile rescued itself from extinction.
crest, is a good example. When the once-exclusive crocodile Source: Edward Berthelot /Contributor
92 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

started to appear on baby clothes and many other items, it lost its cachet. Other con-
tenders, such as the Ralph Lauren polo player, successfully challenged it as a symbol
of casual elegance. Now that Izod is being more careful about where its logo appears,
the brand is starting to regain its “cool” in some circles.

Marketing Applications of Classical

Conditioning Principles
Behavioral learning principles apply to many consumer phenomena, such as when a
marketer creates a distinctive brand image or links a product to an underlying need.
The transfer of meaning from an unconditioned stimulus to a conditioned stimulus
explains why “made-up” brand names, such as Marlboro, Coca-Cola, or Adidas, exert
such powerful effects on consumers. The association between the Marlboro man and
the cigarette is so strong that in some cases the company no longer even bothers to
include the brand name in its ads that feature the cowboy riding off into the sunset.
Indeed, recent research shows that these linkages cement early on; scans of children
show how the pleasure and appetite centers of their brains light up when they view
fast-food-company advertising images such as the McDonald’s logo.5
When researchers pair nonsense syllables (meaningless sets of letters) with such
evaluative words as beauty or success, the meaning transfers to the fake words. This
change in the symbolic significance of initially meaningless words shows that simple
associations can condition even complex meanings, and the learning that results can
last a long time.6 These associations are crucial to many marketing strategies that rely
on the creation and perpetuation of brand equity, in which a brand has strong posi-
tive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.7

Marketing Applications of Repetition

One advertising researcher argued that any more
than three exposures to a marketing communica-
tion are wasted. The first exposure creates aware-
ness of the product, the second demonstrates its
relevance to the consumer, and the third reminds
them of the product’s benefits.8 However, even this
bare-bones approach implies that we need repetition
to ensure that the consumer sees or hears (and pro-
cesses) the message at least three times. As we’ve
seen, this exposure is by no means guaranteed,
because people tend to tune out or distort many
marketing communications. Marketers who attempt
to condition an association must ensure that the con-
sumers they target will be exposed to the stimulus
enough times to make it “stick.” A study that scru-
tinized the large body of research on advertising
Wear-out and weariness are not only an issue for marketers but also for repetition found that recall of a message increases
public health practitioners who often rely on warnings: The more people are linearly with every exposure but levels off after eight
exposed to warnings, the less they pay attention to them. One solution is exposures.9
to create variations of the same basic message. A large study of warnings
on cigarette packaging conducted across 10 European countries found that
However, it is possible to have too much of a
wear-out was not as strong when the warnings combined texts and pictures good thing. Consumers can become so used to hear-
compared to text-only warnings.10 Based on those findings, it’s probably a ing or seeing a marketing stimulus that they no lon-
good idea to regularly change the images we use in such warnings to help ger pay attention to it, a problem we call advertising
reduce wear-out and keep the warnings effective. wear-out. And it gets worse: Too much exposure to
Source: Kim Steele/Alamy Stock Photo
the same message can create advertising weariness,
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 93

where consumers react even more negatively to the repeated message and become less
interested in the brand being advertised. A study of digital advertising for a finan-
cial service provider that examined nearly one million exposures across ten thousand
internet users found that a quarter of consumers showed weariness: They visited the
advertised website less often the more they were exposed to the ad.11 Overkill!

Marketing Applications of Classical Conditioning

Principles: The Halo Effect at Work
Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable asso-
ciation. Various aspects of a marketing message, such as music, humor, or imagery,
can affect conditioning. In a classic study, subjects who viewed a slide of pens paired
with either pleasant or unpleasant music were more likely later to select the pen that
appeared with the pleasant music.12 Think about how you feel when you hear a text
coming on your Slack channel or the buzz of your phone when a message drops.

Burt’s Bees established a positive

reputation in categories like skincare
and lip balms, which then allowed the
company to offer other variations.
Source: Retro AdArchives /Alamy Stock Photo
94 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

But there’s another important reason for the

importance of classical conditioning in marketing:
Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency
of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar, condi-
tioned responses. For example, Pavlov noticed in
subsequent studies that his dogs would sometimes
salivate when they heard noises that only vaguely
resembled a bell, such as keys jangling. People also
react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way
they responded to the original stimulus; we call this
generalization a halo effect.
Strategies that marketers base on stimulus gen-
eralization include:
Family branding—Many products capitalize
Bentley is among many luxury carmakers that successfully licenses its name on the reputation of a company name. Companies
in other product categories.13
such as Campbell’s, Heinz, and General Electric
Source: Courtesy of Bentley Motors Limited.
rely on their positive corporate images to sell a
variety of product lines. On the other hand, this
strategy can come back to bite you if one of your operating
units hits a bump in the road (one of the reasons that Face-
book changed its corporate name to Meta).14
Product line extension—Marketers add related products
to an established brand. Dole, which we associate with fruit,
introduced refrigerated juices and juice bars, whereas Sun
Maid went from raisins to raisin bread.
Licensing—Companies often “rent” well-known names,
hoping that the learned associations they have forged will
“rub off” onto other kinds of products. Zippo Manufacturing
Co., long known for its “windproof” cigarette lighters,
markets a men’s fragrance—and no, it doesn’t smell like
lighter fluid.15 The National Football League puts team logos
on, well, just about everything.16 Bentley lends its name to
We clearly appreciate the value of a halo effect when we look colognes, furniture, skis, handbags, and even a hotel suite
at universities with winning sports teams: Loyal fans snap up
that costs $10,500 a night at the St. Regis hotel in New York.
merchandise, from clothing to bathroom accessories, emblazoned
with the school’s name. The Ferrari prancing horse logo pops up on chess sets, Tod’s
Source: Justin Sullivan /Getty Images loafers, and Oakley sunglasses.17
Look-Alike Packaging—Distinctive packaging designs create strong associations
with a particular brand. Companies that make generic or private-label brands and want
to communicate a quality image often exploit this linkage with look-alike packaging,
or putting their products in packages like those of popular brands.18 A drugstore’s
bottle of private-brand mouthwash that is deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine
mouthwash may evoke a similar response among consumers, who assume that this
“me-too” product shares other characteristics of the original. Indeed, consumers in
one study of shampoo brands tended to rate those with similar packages as similar
in quality and performance as well.19
How does this strategy affect consumers’ perceptions of the original brand? In
general, copying actually helps the copycat brand, as long as the imitator doesn’t
make grandiose claims that it can’t fulfill.20 Consumers also find it less unfair and
more acceptable when the copycat brand imitates another brand’s theme (like the
freshness of Alpine milk theme in the Milka chocolate brand) rather than the brand’s
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 95

perceptual features (like the lilac color scheme of the Milka brand or the Starbucks
mermaid design).21 This “piggybacking” strategy can cut both ways: When the quality Buying, Having, Being
of the me-too product turns out to be lower than that of the original brand, consumers
may exhibit even more positive feelings toward the original. However, if they per- Make Some Noise with
ceive the quality of the two competitors to be about equal, consumers may conclude Tinder’s Sound Signature
that the price premium they pay for the original is not worth it.22 Classical conditioning works so
well with sound that many brands
Consumer Confusion have embraced sonic branding,
the association of a sound with their
Of course, this strategy can make a lot of work for lawyers if the copycat brand
brand.26 How do you feel when
gets too close to the original. Marketers of distinctive brands work hard to protect you hear the classic sound of your
their designs and logos, and each year companies file numerous lawsuits in so-called HBO 2.0, or Netflix application?
Lanham Act cases that hinge on the issue of consumer confusion: How likely is Sonic branding is so popular that
it that one company’s logo, product design, or package is so similar to another that marketing agencies are specializing
the typical shopper would mistake one for the other? Levi Strauss has sued almost in creating sound signatures for
brands. The dating app Tinder, for
100 other apparel manufacturers that it claims have borrowed its trademark pocket instance, got a new sonic signature
design of a pentagon surrounding a drawing of a seagull in flight or its distinctive based on research to identify the
tab that it sews into its garments’ vertical seams.23 Recently, a theme park called most appropriate sounds to capture
Evermore in Utah sued singer Taylor Swift because she titled her 2020 album with its three essential brand character-
the same name.24 istics: its lighthearted and fun ele-
ment (percussive and bright tones),
Companies with a well-established brand image can promote the unique attri-
its surprise (quick tempo), and
butes of their brand—hence the constant reminders for American Express Travelers its emphasis on fresh and young
Cheques: “Ask for them by name.” However, a brand name that a firm uses so widely (game-like feel). The combination of
that it is no longer distinctive becomes part of the public domain and competitors those three sound elements created
are free to borrow it: Think of well-worn names such as aspirin, cellophane, yo-yo, Tinder’s new sonic signature. Now,
escalator, and even google (which started as a noun and is now also a verb). This whenever you hear the sound, you
immediately feel the very sense of
high degree of acceptance can be a tough barrier to jump when you’re a competitor: excitement, fun, and surprise that
Even though Lyft launched before Uber, it still lags in terms of brand awareness and Tinder strategically associated with
continues to work hard to become top of mind ahead of Uber when we need a ride.25 “We have a match!”

Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental conditioning (or operant conditioning) occurs when we learn to
perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative
outcomes. We most closely associate this learning process with the psychologist
B. F. Skinner, who demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by teaching
pigeons and other animals to dance and play Ping-Pong, when he systematically
rewarded them for desired behaviors.27
Whereas responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and simple, we make
those in instrumental conditioning deliberately to obtain a goal, and these may be
more complex. We may learn the desired behavior over a period of time as a shaping
process rewards our intermediate actions. For example, the owner of a new store
may award prizes to shoppers who simply drop in; she hopes that over time they will
continue to drop in and eventually even buy something.
Also, whereas classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli,
instrumental learning occurs when a learner receives a reward after they perform
the desired behavior. In these cases, learning takes place over time, while the learner
attempts and abandons other behaviors that don’t get reinforced. A good way to
remember the difference is to keep in mind that in instrumental learning the person
makes a response because it is instrumental to gain a reward or avoid a punishment.
Over time, consumers come to associate with people who reward them and to choose
products that make them feel good or satisfy some need.
96 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Instrumental conditioning occurs in one of three ways:

1. When the environment provides positive reinforcement

in the form of a reward, this strengthens the response, and
we learn the appropriate behavior. For example, a food
blogger who gets compliments after posting a new way of
saving leftover guacamole and keeping it fresh and tasty
(without turning yucky brown) will be more likely to post
about similar topics in the future.
2. Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so
that we learn the appropriate behavior. A YouTuber who
gets a lot of thumbs down or negative comments to a video
post will quickly learn what not to upload.
3. In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain
Positive reinforcement occurs after consumers try new products
and like them.
things to avoid unpleasantness, punishment occurs
Source: Adene Sanchez / E+/Getty Images when unpleasant events follow a response (such as when
our friends ridicule us if we use an off-putting Zoom
background). We learn the hard way not to repeat these
behaviors.28

To help you understand the differences among these ­mechanisms, keep in mind
that reactions from a person’s e­ nvironment to their behavior can be either positive or
negative, and that marketers can either apply or remove these outcomes (or anticipated
outcomes).
That is, under conditions of both positive reinforcement and punishment, the
person receives a reaction when they do something. In contrast, negative reinforcement
occurs when the person avoids a negative outcome—the removal of something
negative is pleasurable and hence is rewarding.

REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT

ADD something positive ADD something negative

ADDING something to increase behavior. to decrease behavior.

REMOVE something negative REMOVE something positive

REMOVING something to increase behavior. to decrease behavior.

Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior

Figure 4.2 Types of Reinforcement
Source: Matsabe/Shutterstock.
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 97

Finally, when a person no longer receives a positive out-

come, extinction is likely to occur, and the learned ­stimulus–
response connection will not be maintained (as when the
YouTuber no longer receives thumbs up on their videos).
Thus, positive and negative reinforcement strengthen the
future linkage between a response and an outcome because
of the pleasant experience. This tie is weakened under
conditions of both punishment and extinction because of
the unpleasant experience. Figure 4.2 will help you to “rein-
force” the relationships among these four conditions.

Marketing Applications of Instrumental

Conditioning Principles
Casino operators program slot machines to deliver rewards
Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a
on an unpredictable schedule to keep players interested.
marketer rewards or punishes a consumer for a purchase or Source: massimofusaro/Shutterstock
consumption decision. For instance, grocery stores encourage
consumers to bring their own shopping bags by providing
monetary incentives to do so.
Marketers have many ways to reinforce consumers’ behaviors, ranging from a sim-
ple “thank you” after a purchase to substantial rebates and follow-up phone calls. The
continuous reinforcement of consumption can become problematic, however, when the
behavior that is consistently encouraged is maladaptive or unhealthy. For instance, recent
research has uncovered that many of the addictions we might develop to social media or
our technologies took root through a process of instrumental conditioning: The constant
sounds of messages popping up on our phone keep us grabbing for it; the continuous
flow of notifications of likes on a social media post fuel our need to check our feed.29

Loyalty programs are a popular way for marketers to apply instrumental conditioning, because they can reward customers for their purchases.
Source: Mironov Konstantin/Shutterstock
98 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Frequency marketing is a popular technique that rewards regular purchasers

with prizes that get better as they spend more. The airline industry pioneered this
instrumental learning strategy when it introduced “frequent flyer” programs in
the early 1980s to reward loyal customers. The practice has spread to many other
businesses as well, ranging from grocery stores to casinos.

OBJECTIVE 4-2 Cognitive Learning Theory

Summarize how
we learn about Unlike behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning
products and theory approaches learning as a set of internal mental pro-
consumption
practices by
cesses. This comprehensive theory was initially developed
observing others’ to explain how humans gradually acquire, construct, and use
behavior. knowledge from what they observe around them.
An Ocean Spray commercial for diet cranberry juice
illustrates how marketers can harness their knowledge of cognitive theories to
tweak marketing messages. The spot features two cranberry growers, who stand
knee-deep in a bog. A group of people who are exercising joins them. Originally,
the ad depicted these individuals having a party, but a cognitive scientist who
worked on the campaign nixed that idea; she argued that the exercise class would
send the diet message more quickly, whereas the party scene would confuse viewers
who would spend too much time trying to figure out why the group was celebrating.
This extra cognitive activity would distract from the ad’s message. And, contrary
to standard practice in advertising that the actors name the product as early as
possible, she decided that the main characters should wait a few seconds before
they mention the new diet product. She reasoned that viewers would need a second
or so more time to process the images because of the additional action in the ad (the
exercising). In a test of which ads got remembered best, this new version scored
in the top 10 percent.30

Observational Learning
Observational learning occurs when we watch the actions of others and note the
reinforcements they receive for their behaviors. In these situations, learning occurs
because of vicarious rather than direct experience. This type of learning is a complex
process; people store these observations in memory as they accumulate knowledge,
and then they use this information at a later point to guide their own behavior.
Modeling (not the Paris runway kind) is the process of imitating the behavior of
others. Marketing campaigns have long relied on stories with aspirational characters
and immersive stories in their attempts to encourage audiences to model the consump-
tion behaviors depicted in the stories. For instance, recent research shows that adver-
tisements for health services, whether for therapy, exercise, or career advice, were
more impactful on their audience when the story in the ad featured characters who
were intrinsically motivated (doing things because they want to) rather than characters
who were extrinsically motivated (doing things because they feel pressure to): The
researchers argued that consumers could more easily identify with the intrinsically
motivated characters and this facilitated the modeling process.31
The modeling process is a powerful form of learning, and people’s tendencies to
imitate others’ behaviors can have negative effects. Given how much time we spend
on social media, it is not surprising that it is a huge source of modeling influences.
Indeed, doctors report a pronounced spike in young patients seeking treatment for
tics—apparently, they were modeling content from TikTok creators who say they
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 99

have Tourette syndrome, a tic disorder that makes patients involuntarily curse and slap
themselves. These #tourettes videos have been viewed more than 5 billion times.32

How Kids Develop Cognitive Skills

Theory of mind is a cognitive skill that refers to knowing and being aware of one’s
own and of other people’s mental states: understanding what they think and feel.
For instance, we say children have developed a theory of mind if they figure out that
to get what they want they may need to behave a certain way (like whining to their
poor parents). This cognitive skill allows children to become better negotiators to get
things they want! Once children have developed theory of mind, they understand how
others’ minds work and this makes them better able to make sense of the marketing
environment as well.33
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was the foremost proponent of the idea that
children pass through distinct stages of cognitive development. He believed that a
certain cognitive structure characterizes each stage as the child learns to process
information.34
In one classic demonstration of cognitive development, Piaget poured the contents
of a short, squat glass of lemonade into a taller, thinner glass that held the same
amount of liquid. Five-year-olds, who still believed that the shape of the glass deter-
mined its contents, thought this glass held more liquid than the first glass. They are
in what Piaget termed a preoperational stage of development. In contrast, 6-year-olds
tended to be unsure, and 7-year-olds knew the amount of lemonade had not changed.
A child’s ability to make mature, “adult” consumer decisions obviously increases
with age (not that grown-ups always make mature decisions!). Many developmental
specialists no longer believe that children necessarily pass through these fixed stages at
the same time. An alternative view proposes that they differ in information-processing
capability, or the ability to store and retrieve information from memory. Researchers
who advocate this approach identify three developmental stages:35

1. Limited—Children who are younger than age 6 do not employ storage-and-

retrieval strategies.
2. Cued—Children between the ages of 6 and 12 employ these strategies but only
when prompted to do so.
3. Strategic—Children 12 and older spontaneously employ storage-and-retrieval
strategies.

This sequence of development underscores the notion that children do not think
in the same way adults do, and we can’t expect them to use information the same way
either. It also reminds us that they do not necessarily form the same conclusions as do
adults when they encounter product information.36
Conceptual brand meanings, which specify the nonobservable abstract features of
the product, such as the status of owning an item, enter the picture in middle childhood
(about age 8); children incorporate them into their thinking and judgments a few years
later. By the time most children reach 12 years of age, they think about brands on a
conceptual or symbolic level, and they are likely to incorporate these meanings into
brand-related judgments.37 For example, a younger child might ask for a new pair of
Adidas shoes simply because they are familiar with the brand Adidas from seeing it in
a shop, in ads, or on their friends’ feet, while a more developed child is more likely to
ask for a new pair of Adidas because they have a deep sense of the brand’s symbolic
meaning and they are conscious of all the rich semiotic associations with the brand,
which we studied in Chapter 3.
100 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Buying, Having, Being

From Mindlessness to
Mindfulness
By now you have figured out that
a lot of what we learn is automatic.
Behavioral learning theorists empha-
size the routine, automatic nature
of conditioning, and even some
proponents of cognitive learning
agree that some information is
processed in an automatic, passive
way, a condition that research-
ers call “mindlessness” (we’ve all
experienced that!).42
The counterpart to mindlessness
is mindfulness. Mindfulness train-
ing allows us to be more attentive to
what otherwise may have become When millions of preschoolers tune in to Nickelodeon’s hit show Dora the Explorer, they
automatic associations. As such, don’t realize that they view content based on multiple-intelligence theory. This influential
training ourselves to be more alert perspective argues for other types of intelligence, such as athletic prowess or musical ability,
and mindful can help us de-link beyond the traditional math and verbal skills psychologists use to measure IQ. Thus, when
concepts and retrain our brain to Dora consults her map, she promotes “spatial” skills. And when she asks her young viewers
remove unwanted associations or to help her count planks to build a bridge, Dora builds “interpersonal intelligence.”38
to create new ones. For instance, Source: Carolyn Jenkins/Alamy Stock Photo
mindfulness can help people
re-learn how to eat and how to
enjoy what they eat.43 Because
mindfulness can allow us to
change our daily consumption Kids’ Message Comprehension
routines, it can also lower the Because children differ in their abilities to process product-related information,
negative environmental impacts
of overconsumption.44
advertisers’ direct appeals to them raise many serious ethical issues.39 Children’s
Mindfulness is related to the advocacy groups argue that kids younger than age seven do not understand the per-
practice of meditation and encour- suasive intent of commercials, and (as we’ve seen) younger children cannot readily
ages followers to slow down, tune distinguish between a commercial and programming. Kids’ cognitive defenses are
out distractions, and focus on what not yet sufficiently developed to filter out commercial appeals, so in a sense, altering
they are feeling now.45 Ironically,
their brand preferences may be likened to “shooting fish in a barrel,” as one critic
mindfulness has itself become an
industry. You can buy Mindful Lotus put it.40
tea, Mindful Meats, or Mindful Mints; Beginning in the 1970s, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) took action to
subscribe to one of the many mind- protect children. The agency limited commercials during “children’s” programming
fulness apps, like Headspace, to (most often Saturday morning television) and required “separators” to help children
follow guided exercises; or attend discern when a program ended and a commercial began (e.g., “We’ll be right back
some of the many seminars and
workshops available. Even athletes
after these commercial messages”). The FTC reversed itself in the early 1980s during
have gotten into the game: The the deregulatory, pro-business climate of Ronald Reagan’s administration. The 1990
Golden State Warriors, the Seattle Children’s Television Act restored some of these restrictions.
Seahawks, and the Boston Red The Children’s Advertising Review Unit (“CARU”), a part of the Better Business
Sox practice mindfulness in their Bureau, issued revised guidelines for advertising to children that went into effect
locker rooms. A research company
in early 2022. CARU warns advertisers to “. . . not use unfair, deceptive, or other
estimates that meditation-related
businesses in the United States manipulative tactics” aimed at pressuring children to view ads or make purchases
alone generated almost $1 billion or to unknowingly engage with advertising from in-app or in-game advertisements.
in revenue. That’s a lot to meditate The guidelines also address the growing influencer phenomenon in social media;
about! influencers should disclose any significant connections to brands they are endorsing
in language that children can understand.41
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 101

Marketing Applications of Cognitive

Learning Principles
Our ability to learn vicariously when we observe the outcomes of what others do
makes the lives of marketers much easier. They don’t necessarily have to directly
reward or punish consumers when they make a purchase (think how expensive or
even ethically questionable that might be!). Instead, they can show what happens to
desirable models who use or do not use their products; they know that consumers often
will imitate these actions later.
Consumers’ evaluations of the people they model go beyond simple stimulus–
response connections. For example, a celebrity’s image elicits more than a simple
reflexive response of good or bad; it brings a complex set of cultural meanings
and associations that can imbue a brand in the symbolic ways we learned about in
Chapter 3 and that we will revisit in Chapter 8 when we discuss persuasion.

OBJECTIVE 4-3 Remembering

Explain how our
brains process and Memory is a process of acquiring information and storing
store information it over time so that it will be available when we need it.
about brands in
our memory.
Contemporary approaches to the study of memory employ
an information-processing approach. They assume that the
mind is in some ways like a computer: Data are input,
processed, and output for later use in revised form. Figure 4.3 summarizes the
memory process:

1. In the encoding stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize.
2. In the storage stage, we integrate this knowledge with what is already in memory
and “warehouse” it until it is needed.
3. During retrieval stage, we access the desired information.46

Many of our experiences are locked inside our heads, and they may surface years
later if the right cues prompt them. Marketers rely on consumers to retain informa-
tion they collect about products and services so they will apply it to future purchase
decisions. We combine this internal memory with external memory when we decide
what to buy. This includes all the product details on packages and other marketing
stimuli that permit us to identify and evaluate brand alternatives in the marketplace.47

SENSORY MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY

Temporary storage of information Brief storage of information Relatively permanent storage of
received from the senses. currently being used. information.
Capacity: Low Capacity: Limited Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Less than 1 second Duration: Less than 20 seconds Duration: Long or permanent
(vision) or a few seconds (hearing)

Attention Elaboration
Information that passes through Information subjected to elaborative
an attentional gate is transferred rehearsal or deep processing (e.g., its
to short-term memory. meaning is considered) is transferred to
long-term memory.

Figure 4.3 Types of Memory

102 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

An app like Grocery that stores

shopping lists is a powerful external
memory aid.
Source: McLittle Stock /Shutterstock

The grocery-shopping list is a good example of a powerful external memory aid.

When consumers use shopping lists, they buy approximately 80 percent of the items
on the list. The likelihood that a shopper will purchase a particular list item is higher if
the person who wrote the list also participates in the shopping trip. This means that
if marketers can induce consumers to plan to purchase an item before they go shop-
ping, there is a high probability that they will buy it. One way to encourage this kind of
advance planning is to provide peel-off stickers on packages so that, when consumers
notice the supply is low, they can simply peel off the label and place it directly on a
shopping list.48 Or, a retailer can support a phone app that generates a shopping list
for the user (you already can choose from an abundance of apps that do this).49

How Our Brains Encode Information

The way we encode, or mentally program, information helps to determine how our
brains will store this information. In general, it’s more likely that we’ll retain incoming
data when we associate it with other things already in memory. For example, we tend
to remember brand names that we link to physical characteristics of a product category
(e.g., Coffee-Mate creamer or Mixed Chicks Haircare) or that we can easily visual-
ize (e.g., Tide detergent or Puma shoes) compared to more abstract brand names.50
Similarly, our brains automatically react to images of familiar celebrities and use them
to guide how we think about them to ascribe meaning to other images of people or
products with which they appear.51 So a customer might encode a new Hot Chicken
Wing Oreos offering (yes, that’s a real flavor) as similar to the plain vanilla type we’re
used to—until she takes a bite!
In many cases, though, we encode meanings at a more symbolic level, based on
the set of associations we hold in the brain’s semantic network. Let’s take a closer
look at how we encode these deeper meanings.
Episodic memories relate to events that are personally relevant and that we have
personally experienced.52 As a result, a person’s motivation to retain these memories
will likely be strong. Couples often have “their song,” which reminds them of their
first date or wedding. We call some especially vivid associations flashbulb memories
(where were you when you first heard that due to the COVID-19 pandemic, you would
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 103

Certain events create flashbulb

memories. Do you remember when
you first found out about the pandemic
lockdown?
Source: UrbanImages/Alamy Stock Photo

have to stay home?). These memories are often stored in a narrative way, creating a
story structure that connects pieces of the event together.
Researchers describe three distinct memory systems: sensory memory, short-term
memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Each plays a role in processing brand-
related information (see Figure 4.3).

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory stores the information we receive from
our senses. This storage is temporary; it lasts a couple of
seconds at most. For example, a consumer who walks past a
donut shop gets a quick, enticing whiff of something baking
inside. Although this sensation lasts only a few seconds, it
is sufficient to allow them to consider whether they should
investigate further. If they retain this information for further
processing, it transfers to short-term memory.

Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory (STM) also stores information for
a limited period of time, and it has limited capacity. Like
a computer, this system is working memory; it holds the It’s common for marketers to give a brand a vivid name that
information we are currently processing. Our memories can conjures up an image or story in our minds. Research suggests that
store verbal input acoustically (in terms of how it sounds) or this strategy results in higher consumer evaluations versus brand
semantically (in terms of what it means). names composed of meaningless letters or numbers. One study
reported that consumers rated cell phones from Samsung and LG
We store this information as we combine small pieces
more positively after they were the first in the industry to break the
into larger ones in a process called chunking. A chunk is practice of naming the phones with combinations of letters and
a configuration that is familiar to the person and that they numbers—LG’s phones instead sport names like Chocolate, Shine,
can think about as a unit. For example, a brand name like 7 Vu, Voyager, Dare, and Decoy, whereas Samsung started things off
For All Mankind is a chunk that represents a great deal of with the BlackJack, UpStage, FlipShot, and Juke, and later added
detailed information about the product. the Access, Instinct, and Glyde. During the same period, these
companies increased market share in this category. Compared to
Initially, researchers believed that our STM was capable other phone brands, consumers rated these models as modern,
of processing between five and nine chunks of information creative, engaging, original, cool, and easy to remember.53
at a time; they described this basic property as “the magical Source: RAVEENDRAN/AFP via Getty Images
104 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

number 7 ± 2.” This is the reason phone numbers today (at least in the
United States) originally had seven digits.54 It now appears that three to
four chunks is the optimal size for efficient retrieval (we remember seven-
digit phone numbers because we chunk the individual digits, so we may
remember a three-digit exchange as one piece of information).55 Phone calls
aside, chunking is important to marketers because it helps determine how
consumers keep prices in short-term memory when they comparison-shop.56

Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is the system that allows us to retain informa-
tion for a long period of time. A cognitive process of elaboration allows
Individual cognitive or physiological factors are information to move from STM into LTM. This involves thinking about
responsible for some of the differences in retrieval
the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in
ability among people.57 The popularity of puzzles,
such as Rubik’s cube, Sudoku and Brain Box, and memory. The more effort it takes to process information (so-called deep
centers that offer “mental gymnastics,” attests to processing), the more likely it is that information will transfer into LTM.
emerging evidence that we can keep our retrieval Marketers assist in the process when they devise catchy slogans or jingles
abilities sharp by exercising our minds, just as consumers repeat on their own.
we keep our other muscles toned when we
work out on a regular basis.
Source: Singkam/Shutterstock What Makes Us Forget?
Marketers obviously hope that consumers will not forget about their products. How-
ever, in a poll of more than 13,000 adults, more than half were unable to remember
any specific ad they had seen, heard, or read in the past 30 days. How many can you
remember right now? Clearly, forgetting by consumers is a big headache for marketers
(not to mention a problem for students when they study for exams!). In one major
study, only 23 percent of the respondents could recall a new product introduced in
the past year.58
Early memory theorists assumed that memories simply fade with the passage of
time. In a process of decay, the structural changes that learning produces in the brain
simply go away. Forgetting also occurs because of interference; as we learn additional
information, it displaces the previous information. Consumers may forget stimulus–
response associations if they subsequently learn new responses to the same or similar
stimuli; we call this process retroactive interference. Or prior learning can interfere
with new learning, a process we term proactive interference. Because we store pieces
of information in memory as nodes that link to one another, we are more likely to
retrieve a meaning concept that is connected by a larger number of links. But as we
learn new responses, a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving the old response.59
These interference effects help to explain problems in remembering brand infor-
mation. Consumers tend to organize attribute information by brand.60 Additional attri-
bute information regarding a brand or similar brands may limit the person’s ability to
recall old brand information.
Recall may also be inhibited if the brand name is composed of frequently
used words. These words cue competing associations; as a result, we retain less
brand information.61 In one study, brand evaluations deteriorated more rapidly when
ads for the brand appeared with messages for 12 other brands in the same category
than when researchers showed the ad along with ads for 12 dissimilar products.62
Thus, when we increase the uniqueness of one brand, it impairs the recall of other
brands.63 However, when we call a competitor by name, this can result in poorer recall
for our own brand.64
Sometimes we just want to forget. Researchers have called this process moti-
vated forgetting, and they showed that we try hard to forget any message that
threatens our social identity—our sense of who we are.65 For instance, we might
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 105

know that meat-based products contribute to global warming and poor working con-
ditions to a greater extent than plant-based products, yet many of us often ignore this
information altogether to justify continuing to eat a burger, even if we care deeply
for the planet!
It takes a lot of work to remember things: In fact, a recent study found that
memory efficacy—that is, the belief that we will be able to remember things that we
are experiencing right now—was directly linked to whether we behave more virtu-
ously.66 This is because believing that we will remember what we are currently doing
makes us focus on actions that are more aligned with our values: like donating to
charities or engaging in volunteering activities. It’s like being our own future judges
of our current behavior!

What Helps Us To Remember? Buying, Having, Being

It hasn’t been smooth sailing for the cruise industry lately, especially since these float-
ing cities turned out to be ideal breeding grounds for the COVID virus. One of the Digital Amnesia
most embarrassing and high-profile accidents stranded several thousand guests on a “Just a second, I’ll Google the
Carnival ship in the Gulf of Mexico with no electricity or working toilets, but plenty answer.” Is internet access rotting
of smartphones to record the dismal conditions. Carnival’s potential cruisers are skit- our brains? Probably not, but it is
tish, so the cruise line launched a $25 million public relations offensive to lure people making us less able to remember
things and thus less knowledgeable.
back on board. The campaign asks previous customers to use social media to post Some psychologists describe this
images and videos of happy experiences that will contribute to Carnival’s “Moments phenomenon as the Google Effect
That Matter” commercial. The ad’s voiceover says, “We never forget the moments that (or digital amnesia)—the tendency
matter. We hang them on our walls. We share them with everyone. And hold onto them for people to rely too heavily on
forever. Since the day we first set sail, millions of lasting moments have been made the ability to readily access content
online and, as a result, be less likely
with us. What will yours be?” Sure enough, the campaign received more than 30,000
to remember certain details. One
submissions, presumably from passengers who enjoyed both the midnight chocolate study found that a third of adults
buffet and working plumbing.67 turn to Google with a query without
We’ve seen that retrieval is the process whereby we recover information from first trying to remember the answer.
long-term memory. As evidenced by the popularity of the board game Trivial Pursuit Similarly, some researchers are
or the TV show Are You Smarter Than a Fifth Grader?, we have a vast quantity of concerned that with over a billion
people relying on navigation apps
information stored in our heads—a lot of which is not useful unless you play the such as Google Maps, our sense
game! Although most of the information that enters LTM does not go away, it may of direction is being destroyed
be difficult or impossible to retrieve unless the appropriate cues are present. What because the apps diminish our
factors influence the likelihood that we will remember the marketing messages that natural ability to create maps in
organizations work so hard to create? Or simply that will help us remember the list of our minds.68
items we had in mind to shop for when we enter the grocery store?

Salience
The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in mem-
ory. Stimuli that stand out in contrast to their environments are more likely to
command attention, which, in turn, increases the likelihood that we will recall them.
The von Restorff Effect is well-known to memory researchers; it shows that almost any
technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall. This explains
why unusual advertising or distinctive packaging tends to facilitate brand recall.69
The tactic of introducing a surprise element in an ad can boost recall, even if
the new information is not relevant to the remaining material.70 In addition, mystery
ads, in which the ad doesn’t identify the brand until the end, are more effective if we
want to build associations in memory between the product category and that brand—
especially in the case of relatively unknown brands.71
Furthermore, the intensity and type of emotions we experience at the time also
affect the way we recall the event later. We recall mixed emotions (e.g., those with
106 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

positive and negative components) differently from unipolar emotions that are either
wholly positive or wholly negative. The latter become even more polarized over time
so that we recall good things as even better than they really were and bad things as
even worse (maybe the “good old days” weren’t so good after all!).72

Visual versus Verbal Cues

Is a picture worth a thousand words? There is some evidence for the superiority of
visual memory over verbal memory, but this advantage is unclear because it is more
difficult to measure recall of pictures.73 However, the available data indicate that we
are more likely to recognize information we see in picture form at a later time.74 In
one recent study, participants who could freely take photographs during an experience
recognized more of what they saw and less of what they heard, compared with those
who could not take any photographs.75
A recent review of research on imagery and memory concluded that images play
a crucial role in retrieving past experiences that were encoded visually as well as in
imagining future experiences.76 Another study confirmed that consumers typically
recall ads with visual figures more often and they like them better.77
Visual aspects of commercials are more likely to grab a consumer’s attention. This
can be problematic when attention to the visual detracts from processing the actual
message, as a recent study reported (see Figure 4.4). The research project, which
relied on eye-tracking technology, revealed a common trick that pharmaceutical drug
companies use in their commercials: Visuals of happy people attracted so much of
the consumers’ attention that it reduced attention to and understanding of what the
audio was saying. Understanding of the warning and risks associated with the drug
was poorer when participants were exposed to a commercial
showing people with smiling faces than the same commercial
showing people with neutral faces.78
One reason for the power of visuals is that products are
important memory markers; they can encapsulate certain
time periods, and they serve as reminders of personal or col-
lective experiences. For instance, we buy souvenirs to encap-
sulate happy memories or to capture intangible experiences
that we might otherwise forget.79 Certain brands come to
epitomize an era—like the TV series Friends and the 1990s.
Brands can become so associated with certain events or
cultural eras that they shape our memory of those events or
time periods.80 So even if we did not live through a given
period or in a given country, we might have seen products
or designs associated with them and these become part of
Well-established brands can serve as memory markers of earlier
times—like when trucker hats were all the rage.
popular memory.
Source: TIPAKORN MAKORNSEN/ Shutterstock We rely on photos or social media posts as memory
markers that remind us of past events or experiences. The risk, however, is that these
photos may not accurately capture the reality, so our memories of even our own lived
events can become reconstructed and reshaped based on what was captured in the
photo. For instance, a study found that we remember experiences we had as having
lasted longer if we have lots of photos to remember them.81
Did your parents scan all your childhood drawings before they trashed the
physical copies? Photos also can serve as a form of memory preservation and
ultimately replace the physical object. A recent field study found that taking
pictures of things we like before donating them to charity increased donations: The
photo of the loved object reduces the loss we might otherwise have felt from giving
the object away.82
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 107

Figure 4.4 “Shiny, Happy

People” in Pharmaceutical Ads
A commonly used trick in
pharmaceutical drug commercials is
to use visuals to distract consumers’
Neutral Facial Expression attention to the audio warning. Using
Respondent is less visually distracted eye-tracking technology, researchers
and can process the audio warning. found that a smiling face does exactly
that (attracts attention away form the
warning).

Happy Facial Expression

Respondent is more visually distracted
and cannot process the audio warning.

Adding a Text Banner

The visual banner allows the respondent
to process the audio warning, even though
the facial expression is happy.

Photos and memorabilia can help make otherwise intangible experiences easier
to remember. But an ethnographic study of the memory practices of New Yorkers in
the wake of the 2001 terrorist attacks surprisingly found that products can help us
both remember and forget.83 Many New Yorkers who personally experienced 9/11
use souvenirs, such as a piece of debris found on the ground, to “unremember dif-
ficult memories.” The souvenir helps them to cope in the aftermath of a tragic event
by allowing the event to be revered as well as remembered.

Creating a Narrative
Given that our memories store a lot of the social information we acquire in story
form, as we’ll see in Chapter 8, constructing messages in the form of a narrative
helps them resonate with the audience. A narrative is often an effective way to convey
product information. Stories help people to construct mental representations of the
information they see or hear. Pictures aid in this construction and allow us to develop
more detailed mental representations.84
Research supports the idea that we are more likely to positively evaluate and pur-
chase brands when we can immerse ourselves in a narrative that includes the brand.85
A recent study that analyzed consumer reviews on the travel website Trip Advisor
found that the reviews that got the most attention included narrative components, like
relatable characters and a chronology of events.86
Sometimes instead of creating a whole narrative around their brand, companies
just insert their brand in an existing story through product placement. Think about
brands you might have seen or heard mentioned in your favorite TV show: By placing
108 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

those brands inside the story and amongst highly relatable characters of a well-liked
narrative, marketers make those brands instantly memorable. Some companies jump
on the product placement bandwagon even after the fact: For instance, Pottery Barn
later released an Apothecary Table similar to the one Rachel loved so much in the
Friends episode “The One with the Apothecary Table.”87

How Do We Measure Consumers’ Memories

for Marketing Messages?
Because marketers pay so much money to place their messages in front of consum-
ers, they hope that people will remember these ads later. It seems that they have good
reason to be concerned. In one early study, fewer than 40 percent of television viewers
made positive links between commercial messages and the corresponding products;
only 65 percent noticed the brand name in a commercial, and only 38 percent recog-
nized a connection to an important point.88 To make matters worse, recall seems to be
even weaker for digital ads. One recent study reported that while online media offer a
much less expensive way to reach consumers, people recall a maximum of about 30
percent of what they see. In contrast, they recall 60 percent of television messages.89

Recall versus Recognition

One indicator of good advertising is, of course, the impression it makes on us. But how
can we define and measure this impact? Two basic measures of impact are recall and
recognition. In a typical memory study, researchers show consumers brand messages—
either one at a time or in the context of a website, an event, or a videogame—and then
try to assess how well the consumers remember the advertised brand.
Recall tests ask consumers to independently think of
what they have seen without any prompt at all. For instance, a
recent study tested TV viewers’ memory of billboards placed
on the perimeter of a soccer game the day after a televised
game that pitted Germany against England. The recall test
asked them to list any billboard they remembered seeing on
the boards around the playing area.90
Obviously, this task requires great effort on consumers’
part. So often researchers use recognition tests and ask if
consumers recognize a brand from a list. For instance, in the
soccer game study, the researchers asked consumers to check
from a list which advertisers they remembered seeing on the
boards. Think about it: Would you rather respond to a mul-
tiple choice or an open-ended question? The multiple-choice
format is like a recognition test; you have cues to help you
retrieve that information from memory.
Under some conditions, recall and recognition measures
Social media platforms such as Instagram or Facebook have tend to yield the same results, especially when the researchers
revolutionized how people store and share memories. However, try to keep the viewers’ interest in the ads constant (although
at least some users feel that maybe these platforms do this
that may be an overly artificial way to study true memory for
a bit too well: They don’t necessarily want others (especially
employers, parents, and other authority figures) to know about ads).91 Generally, though, recognition scores tend to be more
all their “awesome” experiences. A big factor behind Snapchat’s reliable and do not decay over time the way recall scores
popularity is that the platform posts and then destroys more than do.92 Recognition scores are almost always better than recall
60 million photos or messages every day. One of Snapchat’s scores because recognition is a simpler process and the con-
founders explained the thinking behind the app: “It became clear
sumer has more retrieval cues available. Sometimes recall
how awful social media is. There is real value in sharing moments
that don’t live forever.”93
yields almost null results. For instance, most of the partici-
Source: Shutterstock /Zyabich pants in the soccer study could not recall a single billboard
the day after the game!
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 109

Both types of retrieval play important roles in purchase

decisions, however. Recall tends to be more important in
situations in which consumers do not have product data at
their disposal, so they must rely on memory to generate this
information.94 Recognition is more likely to be an important
factor in a store, where retailers confront consumers with
thousands of product options (i.e., external memory is abun-
dantly available), and the task simply may be to recognize a
familiar package.

Problems with Memory Measures

Although measuring an ad’s memorability is important, analysts
have questioned whether existing measures accurately assess
these dimensions, for several reasons. First, the results we obtain Using eye-tracking and biometric measures during exposure to
from a measuring instrument are not necessarily based on what advertising, researchers can identify how strongly a message is
we measure, but rather on something else about the instrument encoded. A recent study using functional magnetic resonance
or the respondent. This form of contamination is a response imaging (fMRI) found that the strength of this encoding phase
affects how likely that message is remembered one week later.
bias. For example, people tend to give “yes” responses to ques-
That study found that print ads were encoded more strongly and
tions, regardless of what the item asks. In addition, experimental therefore were remembered better than digital ads, even though
subjects often are eager to be “good subjects”: They try to figure the content was the same. The authors of the study suggest that,
out what the experimenter is looking for and give the response even in the digital age, consumers engage more with print ads
they think they are supposed to give. This tendency is so strong than with digital ads.96
Source: patrickheagney/Gettyimages
that in some studies the rate at which subjects claim they recog-
nize bogus ads (ads they have not seen before) is almost as high as their recognition rate
for those they really have seen!95

Memory Lapses, Biases, and False Memories

People are also prone to forget information or retain inaccurate memories. These
memory errors are not just a problem in court cases that rely on eyewitness testimony;
they also call into question the accuracy of product usage databases that rely on
consumers to recall their purchase and consumption of food and household items.
For example, one study asked people to describe what portion of various foods—
small, medium, or large—they ate in a typical meal. However, the researchers used
different definitions of “medium.” Regardless of the definition they gave, about the
same number of people claimed they typically ate “medium” portions.97
In other situations, we may “fool ourselves” by distorting memories. For example,
some people who work toward a goal like losing weight or saving money may exag-
gerate (to themselves) how much progress they’ve made to justify current indulgences.
That tendency points to the importance of documenting your progress (your Fitbit
monitoring device doesn’t lie) to keep yourself on track.98
And, under some circumstances, our minds tend to distort what we remember.
For example, if a brand makes us feel emotionally conflicted because we know that
its products involve child labor, we tend to resolve this conflict not just by ignoring
the negative information but instead by forgetting it altogether. Researchers term this
“hiding our head in the sand” willfully ignorant memory; we remember instead only
those things we like about the brand.99

Marketing Applications of Consumers’ Memories

As we saw at the beginning of this chapter, Joe journeys through time with the aid
of many products that make him feel good because they remind him of earlier parts
of his life. Nostalgia describes the bittersweet emotion that arises when we view the
past with both sadness and longing.100
110 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

Nostalgia appeals to our old memories have

become even more popular in the last few years, as
some big brands work hard to reassure customers
that they can depend on familiar products during
unsettling times. A retro brand is an updated ver-
sion of a brand from a prior historical period. These
products trigger nostalgia, and researchers find that
they often inspire consumers to think back to an era
when (at least in our memories) life was more stable,
simple, or even utopian. Simply, they let us “look
backward through rose-colored glasses.” One study
reported that people who were asked to think about
the past were willing to pay more for products than
those who were asked to think about new or future
memories.101
By evoking nostalgia, brand messages satisfy
The biggest retro success story in recent years: the Old Spice Guy
what consumers crave: authenticity. Retro-styling
campaign that went viral and revived a men’s deodorant brand that is more in and of itself is not enough, though: Brands must
than 70 years old. ensure that the product has personal relevance
Source: Pacific Press Media Production Corp./Alamy Stock Photo to consumers.102 Planters Peanuts recruited the
actor Robert Downey, Jr., as the new voice of Mr. Peanut. “Retired” brand names,
including Meister Brau beer, the brokerage firm Shearson, Handi-Wrap plastic wrap,
and Wonder Bread were sold at auction to companies that want to bring them back
to life.103
Our prior experiences also shape what we like today. Consumer researchers
created a nostalgia index that measures the critical ages during which our preferences
are likely to form and endure over time. It turns out that a good predictor of whether
people will like a specific song is how old they were when that song was popular.
On average, we are most likely to favor songs that were popular when we were
23.5 years old (so pay attention to the hot songs if you haven’t turned 23 yet). Our
preferences for fashion models peak at age 33, and we tend to like movie stars who
were popular when we were 26 or 27 years old.104

OBJECTIVE 4-4 How Do We Organize

Discuss how
knowledge about What We Know?
brands is organized
in our brains. How can we possibly remember most of what we experi-
ence within the last week, much less the past few decades?
One clue is that our brains like to label and categorize new things we learn to
relate these experiences to what we already know about the world. The brain is
organized as an associative network that contains many bits of related information.
PepsiCo launched its “Throwback”
We each have organized systems of concepts that relate to brands, manufacturers,
campaign that offers products like
Pepsi and Mountain Dew in authentic and stores stored in our memories; the contents, of course, depend on our own
packages from the past. Chex Mix unique experiences.
recently reintroduced its “Chex Think of these storage units, or knowledge structures, as complex spider webs
Quest” video game from the 1990s filled with pieces of data. Incoming information gets put into nodes that connect to
for the online gaming platform Steam, one another (if you haven’t guessed, this is also why we called cyberspace the World
while Coca-Cola revived Surge, a
discontinued citrus-flavored soda.105
Wide Web). When we view separate pieces of information as similar for some reason,
And archrival. we connect them together under some more abstract category. Then, we interpret new,
Source: Keith Homan/Shutterstock incoming information to be consistent with the structure we have created.106 This
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 111

helps explain why we are better able to remember brands or stores that we believe “go
together”; for example, when Titleist golf balls rather than Chanel fragrances sponsors Buying, Having, Being
a golf tournament.107
In the associative network, links form between nodes. For example, a consumer The Mulan Debacle
might have a network for “electric cars.” Each node represents a concept related to Sometimes the pent-up demand
the category. This node can be an attribute, a specific brand, a celebrity the consumer for these favorites from days past
can cause a promotion to backfire
identifies with a specific car brand, or even a related product. A network for electric
when too many people want them.
cars might include concepts such as the brand name Tesla, as well as attributes such That’s what McDonald’s discovered
as expensive or green. In turn, these associations themselves can activate other nodes recently when it brought back its
in the networks: The node “Elon Musk” may activate the country South Africa, “Szechuan” sauce for a day. The
and all the associations consumers may have with that country (Nelson Mandela; condiment was created as part of a
Zulu; Oscar Pistorius, the “Blade Runner” superabled athlete who was convicted 1998 promotion for the Disney film
Mulan and was a hit among con-
of murder in a sensational court case; etc.); that node might also trigger the label sumers who were kids at the time.
“entrepreneur,” which could activate other “entrepreneur” nodes, like Bill Gates or Hordes of them congregated at
Steve Jobs. Mickey D’s around the country, only
When we ask the consumer to list electric cars, this consumer recalls only those to discover that the limited supplies
brands that show up in the appropriate category. The task of a new entrant that wants ran out quickly.
One Twitter user posted a video
to position itself as a category member (e.g., a new electric car manufacturer) is to
of an angry crowd chanting, “We
provide cues that facilitate its placement in the appropriate category. Figure 4.5 shows want sauce.” Some disappointed
a sample network for electric cars. fans searched online sites like eBay
A marketing message may activate our associations with a brand directly (for where the condiment was selling for
example, when it shows us a picture of the package), or it may do so indirectly when exorbitant sums. An offer for three
it links to something else that’s related to the brand in our knowledge structure. If it sealed packs of the sauce sold for
$848.88 ($282.96 each), while a
activates a node, it will also activate other linked nodes, much as tapping a spider’s single packet was bidding for $995.
web in one spot sends movement reverberating across the web. Meaning thus spreads Be careful what you wish for!108
across the network, and we recall concepts, such as competing brands and relevant
attributes, that we use to form attitudes toward the brand.
This process of spreading activation allows us to shift back and forth among
levels of meaning. The way we store a piece of information in memory depends on the
type of meaning we initially assign to it. This meaning type, in turn, will determine

Electric cars

Tesla

Toyota Hybrids

Elon Musk

Prius
Entrepreneur

South Africa
Bill Gates

Nelson
Zulu
Mandela

Figure 4.5 An Associative Network for Automobiles

112 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

how and when something activates the meaning. Thus, we organize our knowledge
for the brand Uggs in one or more of the following ways:

• Brand-specific—Knowledge is stored in terms of claims the brand makes (“it’s

luxurious”).
• Communication-specific—Memory is stored in terms of the medium or content
of the marketing communication itself (an Instagram influencer styling her Uggs).
• Brand identification—Memory is stored in terms of the brand name (e.g., “Ugg”).
• Product category—Memory is stored in terms of how the product works or where
it should be used (a set of Uggs in one’s shoe collection).
• Evaluative reactions—Memory is stored as positive or negative emotions (“that
boot looks so stylish”).109

Levels of Knowledge
Within a knowledge structure, we code elements at different levels of abstraction and
complexity. As we saw in Chapter 3, a schema is a cognitive framework we develop
through experience. We encode information more readily when that information is
consistent with an existing schema.110 The ability to move up and down among levels
of abstraction greatly increases processing flexibility and efficiency. For this reason,
young children who do not yet have well-developed schemas are not able to make as
efficient use of purchase information as are older children.111
One type of schema especially relevant to consumer behavior is a script, a sequence
of events an individual expects to occur. As consumers, we learn scripts that guide our
behavior in commercial settings. We expect a certain sequence of events, and we may
become uncomfortable if the service departs from our script. A script for a visit to the
dentist might include such events as (1) drive to the dentist, (2) read old magazines
in the waiting room, (3) hear name called and sit in dentist’s chair, (4) dentist injects
something into gums, (5) dentist turns on high-pitched drill, and so on. This desire to
follow a script helps to explain why such innovations as automatic bank machines, self-
service gas stations, or “scan-your-own” grocery checkouts have met with resistance by
some consumers who have trouble adapting to new sequences of events.112

How Do We Put Products into Categories?

Knowledge structures matter to marketers like Stonyfield, Green Valley, and Trader
Joe’s that sell yogurt-related items because
they want to ensure that customers correctly
group their products. To see why this is
important, consider how someone might
respond to these questions about an ice
cream cone: “What other products share
similar characteristics, and which would you
consider as alternatives to eating a cone?”
These questions may be more com-
plex than they first appear. At one level, a
cone is like an apple because you could eat
both as a dessert. At another level, a cone is
similar to a piece of pie because you could
eat either for dessert and both are fattening.
Although other automotive companies make electric cars, for many drivers the Tesla At still another level, a cone is like an ice
is a category exemplar. cream sundae—you could eat either for
Source: Hadrian/ShutterStock
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 113

Dessert

SUPERORDINATE LEVEL

Fattening Dessert BASIC LEVEL Nonfattening Dessert

SUBORDINATE Low-fat
Ice Cream Pie Cake Fruit Yogurt Ice Cream
LEVEL

Figure 4.6 Levels of Categorization

dessert, both are made of ice cream, and both are fattening. Figure 4.6 depicts these
three levels.
It’s easy to see that the foods a person associates with the category “fattening
dessert” influence their decision about what to eat after dinner. The middle level,
or basic level category, is typically the most useful for classifying products. At this
level, the items we group together tend to have a lot in common with each other but
still permit us to consider a broad enough range of alternatives. The broader super-
ordinate category is more abstract, whereas the more specific subordinate category
often includes individual brands.113 Of course, not all items fit equally well into a
category. Apple pie is a better example of the subordinate category “pie” than is rhu-
barb pie, even though both are types of pies. This is because it’s more prototypical,
and most people would think of apple as a pie flavor before they thought of rhubarb.
In contrast, true pie experts probably know a lot about both typical and atypical
category examples.114
Product categories are the building blocks of a market, but sometimes companies
like to play with them; they create new ones when they introduce hybrid products
that feature characteristics from two distinct domains. Thus, we have the crossover
utility vehicle (CUV) that mixes a passenger car and a sport utility vehicle (SUV) and
the huge “athleisure” fashion phenomenon that fuses styles from athletic apparel
and leisure apparel to yield an army of Lululemon-clad yoga buffs. And let’s not even
talk about the “cronut” craze (a combination croissant and donut) that started with a
New York bakery and made its leap to national stardom courtesy of Dunkin’ Donuts.115

“If They Own This, They Must Own That”:

Consumption Constellations
These networks of brands alongside all the associations we make with them—
personalities, roles, and other meanings—are called consumption constellations.
These constellations connect all the associations we have learned around a concept,
such as “hipster,” which has become synonymous with someone who has specific tastes
in alternative, outside-the-mainstream food, experiences, fashions, and leisure activi-
ties. Products inside a constellation are complementary or often purchased together.
They can also be marketed as such: Social media influencers use the recipe to promote
constellations when they post videos that instruct their followers how to “get the look.”
Some evidence indicates that young children learn consumption-related informa-
tion surprisingly well.116 Researchers found that the number of products and brands
children integrate in their knowledge structures grows proportionally to their age until
about age 12 because we start forming more rigid associations and stereotypes at the
onset of adolescence.117
114 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

How Do You Become an Expert?

Who would you turn to if you’re in need of fashion advice? Or if you needed help
picking a good wine? Experts! When consumers are passionate about a topic or
product category, they seek more knowledge, and some even develop expertise about
certain topics, products, or brands. Experts are thirsty for knowledge: they have more
elaborated cognitive structures, they remember information better, and they are
more efficient at accessing that information.118
As useful as experts are, researchers have recently found that, sadly, experts
tend to become more emotionally numb: knowing so much takes a toll on the actual
enjoyment of having this knowledge.119 Researchers found evidence of this emo-
tional numbness across a variety of consumption domains: From cinephiles to wine
connoisseurs, the more complex an expert’s cognitive structure of a given product
category, the less enjoyment they have in learning more about that product because
they become overly focused on the analytical process of updating their cognitive
structure. So, if you’re passionate about something and want to keep learning more
and more about it, it’s also important to continue having fun with it. If something
you’re passionate about starts to feel like work, take a break and pause to remember
why you enjoyed this in the first place. Having enjoyment from your passion should
take precedent over stressing about the accumulation and organization of more knowl-
edge about it.
It is important to note that knowledge is constructed not just as function of cog-
nitive processes that happen in the brain, but also through what is called embodied
knowledge: We develop and grow our knowledge through our own actions, and by
witnessing others’ actions. Experts develop their knowledge about products not from
reading more about them, but also living them. For instance, a recent in-depth study of
beer aficionados found that their sensory experiences were central to how they eventu-
ally developed the complex system of taste they needed to judge beers.120 Compared
to novices, experts tune in to their bodily experience and engineer their taste by dis-
secting their sensory experience and using more technical language to describe the
beer. So instead of saying things like “very tasty,” they provide more refined quali-
fiers that attempt to objectively describe the more nuanced sensations that the beer
provides: oaky, spice and apple-laden.

Marketing Applications of Consumers’

Knowledge Structures
The way we categorize products has a lot of strategic implications for marketers.
That’s because this process affects which products consumers will compare to our
product and the criteria they’ll use to decide whether they like us or the other guys.

Position a Product
The success of a positioning strategy hinges on the marketer’s ability to convince
the consumer to consider its product within a given category. For example, the
orange juice industry tried to reposition orange juice as a drink people can enjoy
all day long (“It’s not just for breakfast anymore”). However, soft-drink companies
attempt the opposite when they portray sodas as suitable for breakfast consump-
tion. They are trying to make their way into consumers’ “breakfast drink” category,
along with orange juice, grapefruit juice, and coffee. Of course, this strategy can
backfire, as Pepsi-Cola discovered when it introduced Pepsi A.M. and positioned it
as a coffee substitute. The company did such a good job of categorizing the drink
as a morning beverage that customers wouldn’t drink it at any other time, and the
product failed.121
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 115

Identify Competitors
At the abstract, superordinate level, many different
product forms compete for membership. The
category “entertainment” might comprise both
bowling and the ballet, but not many people
would substitute one of these activities for the
other. Products and services that on the surface
are quite different, however, compete with each
other at a broad level for consumers’ discretionary
dollars. Although bowling or ballet may not be
a likely tradeoff for many people, a symphony
might try to lure away ballet season ticket holders
by positioning itself as an equivalent member of
the superordinate category “cultural event.” We’re This ad for Sunkist lemon juice attempts to establish a new category for the
often faced with choices between noncomparable product by repositioning it as a salt substitute.
categories, where we can’t directly relate the Source: Courtesy of Sunkist Growers.
attributes in one to those in another (the old
problem of comparing apples and oranges). When we can create an overlapping category
that encompasses both items (e.g., entertainment, value, usefulness) and then rate each
alternative in terms of that superordinate category comparison, the process is easier.122

Create an Exemplar Product

As we saw with the case of apple pie versus rhubarb pie, if a product is a really good
example of a category, then it is more familiar to consumers and they more easily rec-
ognize and recall it.123 The characteristics of these so-called category exemplars tend
to exert a disproportionate influence on how people think of the category in general.124
In a sense, brands we strongly associate with a category get to “call the shots”: They
define the criteria we use to evaluate all category members.

Locate Products in a Store

Product categorization also can affect consumers’ expectations regarding the places
where they can locate a desired product. If products do not clearly fit into categories
(e.g., is a rug furniture?), this may diminish our ability to find them or figure out what
they’re supposed to be once we do. For instance, a frozen dog food that pet owners
had to thaw and cook before they served it to Fido failed in the market, partly because
people could not adapt to the idea of buying dog food in the “frozen foods for people”
section of their grocery stores.

Create Distinctive Associations

Marketers have many branding and communication strategies at their disposal to
tap into consumers’ knowledge by associating their brands with existing nodes. For
instance, they can benefit, through what is called a halo effect, from associating
their brand with images, sounds, or celebrities that generate positive responses. First
entrants in a product category, like Tesla in the electric vehicles category, are some-
times called pioneer brands: They have an immediate advantage because there is not
competition for the node, and it becomes more easily associated with their name.125
In contrast, follower brands that ride their coattails are less distinctive.
More generally, we are more likely to recognize words, objects, and faces we
learn early in life than similar items we learn later. This applies to brands as well;
managers who introduce new entries into a market with well-established brand names
need to work harder to create learning and memory linkages by exposing consumers
to information about them more frequently.126
116 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

The iconic (and deceased) reggae

singer Bob Marley’s name and image
appears on a vast range of products,
including caps, lanyards, T-shirts,
rolling papers, handbags and purses,
belts and buckles, beach towels, and
knapsacks. His daughter Cedella
launched High Tide swimwear to
further extend the franchise, and his
son Rohan created the Marley Coffee
brand; each variety is named after a
different Marley tune.127
Source: Jon Arnold Images Ltd /Alamy Stock Photo

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, you should for it or when a consumer avoids a behavior because of
be able to: seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded
or punished for it.
1. Describe how conditioning results in learning.
3. Explain how our brains process and store infor-
Behavioral learning theories assume that learn-
mation about brands in our memory.
ing occurs because of responses to external events.
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that Memory is the storage of learned information. The
naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) way we encode information when we perceive it
is paired with another stimulus that does not initially determines how we will store it in memory. The memory
elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the systems we call sensory memory, short-term memory,
conditioned stimulus) elicits the response even in and long-term memory each play a role in retaining
the absence of the first. and processing information from the outside world in
marketing strategies.
2. Summarize how we learn about products and
consumption practices by observing others’ 4. Discuss how knowledge about brands is orga-
behavior. nized in our brains.
Cognitive learning occurs as the result of mental pro- Our knowledge of brands is integrated in a complex net-
cesses. For example, observational learning occurs work of nodes that, when activated, can in turn activate
when the consumer performs a behavior because of associated nodes. In these networks live consumption
seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded constellations and brand knowledge networks.

KEY TERMS
Advertising wear-out, 92 Category exemplars, 115 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 91
Advertising weariness, 92 Chunking, 103 Consumer confusion, 95
Associative network, 110 Classical conditioning, 90 Consumption constellations, 113
Behavioral learning theories, 90 Cognitive learning theory, 98 Decay, 104
Brand equity, 92 Conditioned response (CR), 91 Elaboration, 104
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 117

Embodied knowledge, 114 Memory efficacy, 105 Response bias, 109

Encoding stage, 101 Memory markers, 106 Retrieval stage, 101
Episodic memories, 102 Memory preservation, 106 Retro brand, 110
Evaluative conditioning, 91 Mindfulness, 100 Salience, 105
Expertise, 114 Mixed emotions, 105 Script, 112
Extinction, 91 Modeling, 98 Semantic network, 102
Family branding, 94 Motivated forgetting, 104 Sensory memory, 103
Follower brands, 115 Multiple-intelligence theory, 100 Shaping, 95
Frequency marketing, 98 Narrative, 103 Short-term memory (STM), 103
The Google effect, 105 Negative reinforcement, 96 Sonic branding, 95
Halo effect, 94 Nodes, 111 Sound signatures, 95
Hybrid products, 113 Nostalgia, 109 Spreading activation, 111
Incidental learning, 89 Observational learning, 98 Stages of cognitive development, 99
Instrumental conditioning, 95 Pioneer brands, 115 Stimulus generalization, 94
Interference, 104 Positive reinforcement, 96 Storage stage, 101
Knowledge structures, 110 Product line extension, 94 Theory of mind, 99
Learning, 89 Product placement, 107 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 91
Licensing, 94 Punishment, 96 Unipolar emotions, 106
Long-term memory (LTM), 104 Recall, 108 von Restorff effect, 105
Look-alike packaging, 94 Recognition, 108 Willfully ignorant memory, 109
Memory, 101 Repetition, 91

REVIEW
4-1 What is the difference between an unconditioned 4-11 How is associative memory like a spider web?
stimulus and a conditioned stimulus? 4-12 How does the likelihood that a person wants to use
4-2 How can marketers use repetition to increase the like- an ATM machine relate to a schema?
lihood that consumers will learn about their brand?
4-13 Why does a pioneer brand have a memory advantage
4-3 Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a over follower brands?
product in a commercial where a popular song plays
4-14 If a consumer is familiar with a product, advertising
in the background?
for it can work by either enhancing or diminishing
4-4 What is the difference between classical conditioning recall. Why?
and instrumental conditioning?
4-15 Define nostalgia and explain why it’s such a widely
4-5 What is the major difference between behavioral and
used advertising strategy.
cognitive theories of learning?
4-16 Name the two basic measures of memory and
4-6 Name the three stages of information processing as
describe how they differ from one another.
we commit information about products to memory.
4-17 List three problems with measures of memory for
4-7 What is external memory, and why is it important to
advertising.
marketers?
4-18 How do different types of reinforcement enhance
4-8 Give an example of an episodic memory.
learning? How does the strategy of frequency mar-
4-9 Why do U.S. phone numbers have seven digits (not keting relate to conditioning?
including the area code)?
4-19 How does learning new information make it more
4-10 List the three types of memory and explain how they likely that we’ll forget things we’ve already learned?
work together.
118 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE

DISCUSS
4-20 To hasten kids’ introduction to social media, a team Remembrance of Things Past by Marcel Proust. The
of Finnish designers invented a block-sorting toy that narrator dips a pastry (a “madeleine”) into his tea,
also works like Twitter. It allows preverbal kids to and this action unleashes a flood of memories that
grab colorful blocks with icons for sleeping, eating, drive the rest of the book. How might marketers try to
or brushing their teeth; the kids then fit them into tie these powerful food-related memories to branding
slots to indicate what they’re up to. The device then strategies?
transmits the “status update” to light up the corre- 4-26 Some die-hard fans were not pleased when the
sponding block-shape on the same toy in another Rolling Stones sold the tune “Start Me Up” for about
household.128 Should very young children be intro- $4 million to Microsoft, which wanted the classic
duced to social media this way? song to promote its Windows ’95 launch. The Beach
4-21 In his book Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Boys sold “Good Vibrations” to Cadbury Schweppes
Thinking, author Malcolm Gladwell argues that hal- for its Sunkist soft drink, Steppenwolf offered “Born
lowed marketing research techniques such as focus to Be Wild” to plug the Mercury Cougar, and even
groups aren’t effective because we usually react Bob Dylan sold “The Times They Are A-Changin’”
to products quickly and without much conscious to Coopers & Lybrand (now called PriceWaterhouse-
thought; thus, it’s better simply to solicit consumers’ Coopers).131 Other rock legends have refused to play
first impressions rather than getting them to think at the commercial game, including Bruce Springsteen,
length about why they buy. What’s your position on the Grateful Dead, Led Zeppelin, R.E.M., and U2.
this issue? According to U2’s manager, “Rock ’n’ roll is the last
4-22 Mindfulness training often claims to help people vestige of independence. It is undignified to put that
change how they eat, how they work out, and how creative effort and hard work to the disposal of a soft
they study. Do you agree? drink or beer or car.”132 Singer Neil Young is espe-
cially adamant about not selling out; in his song
4-23 Research shows that taking photos of experiences
“This Note’s for You,” he croons, “Ain’t singing for
with the intention to share them reduces one’s enjoy-
Pepsi, ain’t singing for Coke, I don’t sing for nobody,
ment of the experience. This happens because the
makes me look like a joke.” What’s your take on this
goal of sharing involves the possibility of feeling
issue? How do you react when one of your favorite
judged by others.129 Has that happened to you? Can
songs turns up in a commercial? Is this use of nos-
you describe the experience and the reactions you got
talgia an effective way to market a product? Why or
to your photos?
why not?
4-24 The “Google effect” describes our tendency to place
our trust in a search engine without bothering to think 4-27 The chapter discusses the possibility that our increas-
for ourselves. Do you agree that this a problem? If ing reliance on apps to search for information is
so, what do you think might be the consequences? Is diminishing our natural ability to think for ourselves.
there any way to prevent “digital amnesia”? Do you agree?

4-25 Even food can facilitate recall: One study looked at 4-28 New passive monitoring systems allow us to pay tolls
how favorite recipes stimulate memories of the past. automatically or simply show our phones equipped
When the researchers asked informants to list three of with systems like Apple Pay. Convenient, for sure.
their favorite recipes and to talk about these choices, But these systems also eliminate the transparency of
they found that people tended to link them with mem- the connection between the stimulus and the response.
ories of past events, such as childhood memories, As a result, we don’t think as much about the costs
family holidays, milestone events (such as dishes when we use them. Is this a problem for consumers?
they only make on special holidays, like corned beef 4-29 The Snapchat app provides a way for social media
and cabbage on St. Patrick’s Day), heirlooms (recipes users to share content that disappears after a brief
handed down across generations), and the passing time with their friends. In Europe, Google is fighting
of time (e.g., eating blueberry cobbler only in the an intense legal battle over what some call the “right
summer).130 Indeed, one of the most famous liter- to be forgotten”; users want the option to dictate to
ary references is from the classic (3,000-page!) novel Google whether it will be allowed to display results
 Chapter 4 • Learning, Remembering, and Knowing 119

when people search for them. On the other hand, with the expectation that the content will be perma-
some people who believe that “information wants to nent and that you forfeit control over others’ right to
be free” say that if a person posts online, it should be access it. Which argument is correct?

APPLY
4-30 Devise a product jingle memory test. Compile a list of to wash their hands. However, as in many developing
brands that are or have been associated with memo- countries, toilets are a symbol of cleanliness because
rable jingles, such as Chiquita Banana, Alka-Seltzer, they have replaced pit latrines. So, an advertising
McDonald’s, or even [Link]. Read this list campaign included messages that reminded people
to friends and see how many jingles they remember. of the germs they could still pick up even in modern
You may be surprised at their level of recall. bathrooms: Mothers and children walked out of rest-
4-31 A physician borrowed a page from product market- rooms with a glowing purple pigment on their hands
ers when she asked for their advice to help persuade that contaminated everything they touched. These
people in the developing world to wash their hands images in turn triggered the habit of handwashing,
habitually with soap. Diseases and disorders caused and the project resulted in a significant increase in
by dirty hands—like diarrhea—kill a child some- the number of consumers who washed their hands
where in the world about every 15 seconds, and about with soap.133 How can other organizations that work
half those deaths could be prevented with the regu- to improve public health, the environment, or other
lar use of soap. The project adapted techniques that social issues harness our knowledge about consumer
major marketers use to encourage habitual product learning and habitual behavior to create or reenergize
usage of items such as skin moisturizers, disinfecting positive habits?
wipes, air fresheners, water purifiers, toothpaste, and 4-32 Collect some pictures of “classic” products that have
vitamins. For example, beer commercials often depict high nostalgia value. Show these pictures to others
a group of guys together because research shows that and allow them to free-associate. Analyze the types
being with a group of friends tends to trigger habitual of memories that these products evoke and think
drinking! The researchers found that when people in about how a marketer might employ these associa-
Ghana experienced a feeling of disgust, this was a cue tions in a product’s promotional strategy.

DIGGING IN WITH DATA

See “Data Case 1: Analyzing the Athletic Shoe Market” in Appendix A for an opportunity to work with real consumer
data and apply this chapter’s concepts to real world problems.

Kidfluence and Kidfluencers – Marketing

CASE STUDY to Children Responsibly
Little kids are big business. In 2021, the market for toys in A little brain science can help explain what is going on
the United States was $38 billion.134 U.S. children’s food in those developing minds when they are exposed to mar-
and beverages had revenues of $70 billion that year.135 keting messages. Advertising targets two areas of the brain
And in 2023, all those cute little kids’ stylish outfits were that are not fully developed and therefore not necessarily
expected to bring in global revenues of $239 billion! While equipped for evaluation of nuanced marketing communica-
children’s parents make most purchases, the kids can have tion. The first is the limbic system, in charge of our emotional
a big influence over what parents choose, and their influ- responses. Intense stimuli, like loud noises, quick motion, and
ence often impacts purchases that are not only for kids. bright colors, cause neural pathways to send messages that
This “kidfluence” effect has caused marketers to focus result in joy and excitement and trigger the release of “feel-
­s ignificant promotional effort on these young consum- good” chemicals, like dopamine and endorphins. The other
ers.136 But since children’s brains and decision-making important part of the brain is the prefrontal cortex, respon-
abilities are still developing, companies marketing to them sible for cognitive behavior, like decision-making skills and
should make sure they are doing so in a responsible and self-control. The problem is that this important part of the
ethical manner.137 brain is not fully developed until we’re about 25 years old!138
120 Section 2 • Making Sense of the World

All advertisements utilize these brain functions, but these override their response and say, ‘Wait. I don’t really need
functions are especially triggered by social media ads that this product. Do I want this?’”147
use creative speech, sounds, music, and visual effects. Some Recognizing the need to be careful when marketing to
of the most popular content on YouTube are videos directed children (and in response to public pressure), advertisers and
at children, with channels featuring kids engaged in pretend social media companies have taken steps to help ensure a more
play, the unboxing of toys, and animated nursery rhymes that responsible approach to content for children. Walt Disney Co.
result in billions of views.139 YouTube Kids was created in decided not to show preschoolers ads on its Disney+ service
2015 as a safer place for kids to consume videos, but some and will not collect data on individual kids for targeting
bad actors lured children to offensive videos that featured purposes. Google and Facebook parent meta no longer allow
popular characters like Spiderman and Frozen’s Elsa.140 ad-targeting to people under 18.148 YouTube now forces
Facebook (now Meta) joined the fray with its introduction creators to designate whether uploaded videos are meant for
of Facebook Messenger, targeted at children ages 6 to 12.141 children, and if so, it disables features such as ad targeting and
The ubiquity of digital devices makes it more challenging for comments.149 In its most significant move, YouTube removed
parents to monitor media consumption—both the content and millions of low-quality videos from YouTube Kids, cutting its
the ads that accompany it—than it was when traditional TV library by about 80 percent.150 Major companies, including
was the only option.142 McDonald’s, Pepsico, and Kraft foods, have tightened
Social media has led to the rise of a particular kind restrictions on their pitches to children.151
of spokesperson—influencers who are kids themselves. Some watchdog organizations feel these voluntary moves
Just as for their older counterparts, the domain of these are insufficient and have asked for more regulation. In 2022,
“kidfluencers” is largely YouTube and Instagram. Aubrey a consortium of 31 groups, including the American Academy
Jade is a kidfluencer with 177,000 Instagram followers. Her of Pediatrics, called upon the Federal Trade Commission to
perfectly coiffed hair matches her stylish and trendy ’fits. “I investigate the methods used to collect online data about kids:
just love trench coats and I’m obsessed with this one!!” she “Advertising to children is a lucrative, booming business, and
writes in one of her posts. Or perhaps someone posted for her not enough is understood about these new methods of surveil-
since she was only four years old when that post was made.143 ling and monetizing children, or the impact that it has on their
When the Instagram kidfluencer known as Dear Giana was privacy and wellbeing,” according to the group’s letter to the
nine years old, she signed a contract with Nike to promote FTC.152 As the use of digital media by children continues
its products to her followers.144 But the king (or maybe little to grow, it will take the “village” of responsible advertisers,
prince) of kidfluencers is Ryan Kaji, the nine-year-old star of legislators, and most of all, parents, to ensure that the young-
YouTube Channel’s Ryan’s World. Kaji topped Forbes’ 2020 est consumers are marketed to in a way appropriate for their
list of highest-paid YouTubers (of all ages) with an estimated age and decision-making capabilities.
income of $29.5 million from his product lines and social
media content.145
Research has shown that consumers consider influ- DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
encers as more trustworthy and relatable than traditional
CS 4-1 Discuss some of the ways that the limited decision-
“celebrities” because they are “everyday people.”146 This
making and self-control capabilities of young chil-
relatability factor applies to children too, who identify
dren could lead them to make inaccurate assessments
with a child who looks like them and plays with toys or
of advertising messages. Use examples to illustrate.
other products they may be interested in. Brain chemistry
also plays a role here, as endorphins and dopamine—those CS 4-2 If you were designing an ad campaign directed at
feel good chemicals—are released when a child spends 6 to 10-year-old kids, what principles could you use
time with a good friend, which can be similar to the expe- to ensure that you are communicating to them in an
rience of “loving” a kidfluencer or a brand character. The appropriate and responsible manner, while still pro-
popular “unboxing” videos are a good example of this moting your product?
phenomenon—children who witness the joy of another kid CS 4-3 What are the risks to the children serving as kidflu-
unboxing a product may then carry that joy to the product encers who are allowed by parents (and encouraged
itself. Matthew LaPierre, an associate professor of commu- by marketers and fans) to take on this role? What
nication at the University of Arizona, researches media’s limitations regarding kidfluencers, if any, should
impact on children’s health and well-being. He says these advertisers voluntarily agree to and/or legislators
videos get kids excited, but kids “don’t have that ability to enforce by law?