Module:3 Actuator Performance and Selection

Electrical actuating systems: solid-state switches, solenoids and electric motors: DC

motor, stepper motor, and Inertial measurement unit, Mechanical actuating systems:
types of motion, kinematic chains, cams and gears, Pneumatic and hydraulic actuating
systems: diaphragms, bellows and control valves.

1. Electrical actuating systems:

1.1. Solid-State Switches:
1.1.1. P-N Junction Diode:
P-N junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows
the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or
reverse direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On
the other hand, if the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. Thus the
P-N diode acts as a switch. It will be acts as ON switch when it is forward biased and
acts as OFF switch during reverse biased.
The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon,
germanium, and gallium arsenide. For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred
over germanium. The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors work at
higher temperature when compared with the p-n junction diodes made from germanium
semiconductors.
The basic symbol of p-n junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias is shown in
the below figure

A P-N junction is the simplest form of the diode which behaves as ideally short circuit
when it is in forward biased (switch ON) and behaves as ideally open circuit when it is
in the reverse biased (switch OFF).
During ‘ON’ state, the diode offers low resistance called as the ‘Forward resistance’ and
high resistance during reverse biased condition. The diode requires a minimum forward
bias voltage to switch to the ‘ON’ condition which is called Cut-in-voltage. In reverse
biased mode the diode won’t conduct and acts as ‘OFF’ switch. When the reverse bias
voltage exceeds its PIV limit, the diode gets damaged which is called as the Breakdown
voltage. The following circuit explains the diode acting as a switch:
A switching diode has a PN junction in which P-region is lightly doped and N-region is
heavily doped. The above circuit symbolizes that the diode gets ON when positive
voltage forward biases the diode and it gets OFF when negative voltage reverse biases
the diode.
1.1.2. Bipolar Junction Transistor
BJT is the short form of Bipolar Junction Transistor, it is a solid-state current controlled
device Technically speaking, BJT is a three-terminal device with an Emitter, collector,
and a base pin, the current flow through the emitter and collector are controlled by the
amount of current applied to the base. The Fig 2 shows the symbols of the two types of
transistors. The one on the left is the symbol of the PNP transistor and the one on the
right is the symbol of the NPN transistor. The difference between the PNP and NPN
transistors is that the arrow mark at the emitter end if you have noticed, the arrow in the
PNP transistor is mentioned as moving from the emitter to the base whereas in the NPN
transistor the arrow will be moving from the base to the emitter. The Direction of the
arrow represents the direction of current flow in the transistor.

Fig 2. Transistor – symbol

How does a BJT act as a switch?
A transistor has three regions of operation: Active region cut off region and the saturation
region. The transistor acts as a switch in the cut-off region and the saturation mode. The
transistor is fully OFF in the cutoff region and fully ON in the saturation region.

Fig. 3. Transistor as a Switch

1.2. Solenoid
A solenoid is a long piece of wire which is wound in the shape of a coil. When the electric
current passes through the coil it creates a relatively uniform magnetic field inside the
coil. The solenoid can create a magnetic field from electric current and this magnetic
field can be used to generate a linear motion with the help of a metal core. This simple
device can be used as an electromagnet, as an inductor or as a miniature wireless
receiving antenna in a circuit.
The solenoid simply works on the principle of “electromagnetism”. When the current
flow through the coil magnetic field is generated in it, if a metal core is placed inside the
coil the magnetic lines of flux is concentrated on the core which increases the induction
of the coil as compared to the air core. The magnetic strength of the solenoid can be
increased by increasing the density of the turns or by increasing the current flow in the
coil.

Fig.4. Solenoid
1.3. Electric motors: DC motor, stepper motor
1.3.1. DC motor
A DC Motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into Mechanical energy. It
works on the principle of Lorentz Law, which states that “the current-carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic and electric field experience a force”. The experienced force is
called the Lorentz force. The Fleming left-hand rule gives the direction of the force.

Fig.5. Fleming left-hand rule

Different parts of DC Motor are:

 • Armature or Rotor: The armature of a DC motor is a rotating part that rotates on its axis.
It is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one another. The armature is
perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder and is separated from the field coil by an air gap.
• Field Coil or Stator: It is a non-moving part on which winding is wound to produce a
magnetic field. This electromagnet has a cylindrical cavity between its poles.
• Yoke: It is an outer frame and it provides mechanical strength to whole assembly of motor.
It is made up of cast iron or steel.
• Pole Shoe: It enlarges region of pole, so that the flux can be spread out within the air-gap as
well as extra flux can be passed through the air space toward armature. The materials used
to build pole shoe is cast iron or steel.
• Pole: It is an electromagnet and the field winding is wounded on pole. Whenever field
winding is energized then the pole gives magnetic flux. The materials used for this are cast
steel, cast iron. It can be built with the annealed steel laminations for reducing the power
drop because of the eddy currents.
• Commutator: It is a cylindrical structure that is made of copper segments stacked together
but insulated from each other. The primary function of a commutator is to supply electrical
current to the armature winding. It helps in producing steady rotating torque.
• Brushes: The brushes of a DC motor are made with graphite and carbon structure. These
brushes conduct electric current from the external circuit and provide it to the rotating
commutator.
Working Principle:
The principle of operation of a dc motor can be stated as when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force. In a practical dc motor, the field
winding produces the required magnetic held while armature conductor play the role of current
carrying conductor and hence the armature conductors experience a force. In simple terms, the
electrical motor is a device used for producing rotational energy.
A magnetic field arises in the air gap when the field coil of the DC motor is energised. The created
magnetic field is in the direction of the radii of the armature. The magnetic field enters the armature
from the North Pole side of the field coil and “exits” the armature from the field coil’s South Pole
side. The conductors located on the other pole are subjected to a force of the same intensity but in
the opposite direction. These two opposing forces create a torque that causes the motor armature
to rotate.

Fig.6. working principle

According to the diagram, the current enters the coil ABCD from brush X. ABCD is a current-
carrying coil that is placed in a magnetic field that is perpendicular to it. So, using Fleming's left-
hand rule, we can say that AB moves downward and CD moves upward. CD moves towards the
north pole in the next half rotation, while AB moves towards the south pole. Using Fleming's left-
hand rule again, we can see that AB moves upward and CD moves downward. This process
continues and the coil begins to rotate.

Back EMF:
When the armature winding of a dc motor starts rotating in the magnetic flux produced by the field
winding, it cuts the lines of magnetic flux. Hence according to the faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction, there will be an induced emf in the armature winding. As per the Lenz’s
law, this induced emf acts in opposite direction to the armature supply voltage. Hence this emf is
called as the back emf and denoted by Eb.
𝑃Φ𝑍𝑁
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝐴
where, P=number of poles of dc motor; Φ= flux per pole; Z=total number of armature conductors;
N=armature speed; A=number of parallel paths in armature winding
As per Lenz's law, "the induced emf always opposes the cause of its production”. Here, the cause
of generation of back emf is the rotation of armature. Rotation of armature is due to armature
torque. Torque is due to armature current and armature current is due to supply dc voltage V.
Therefore, the ultimate cause of production of Eb is the supply voltage V. Therefore, back emf is
always directed opposite to supply voltage V.

Significance of back emf in dc motor:

✓ The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self -regulating machine i.e., it makes
the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque
required by the load. When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to
overcome the friction and windage losses. Therefore, the armature current (Ia) is small and
the back e.m.f. is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
✓ If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to slow down.
Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the field is reduced
and hence the back e.m.f. Eb falls. The decreased back e.m.f. allows a larger current to flow
through the armature and larger current means increased driving torque. Thus, the driving
torque increases as the motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing down when the
armature current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the load.
✓ If the load on the motor is decreased, the driving torque is momentarily in excess of the
requirement so that armature is accelerated. As the armature speed increases, the back
e.m.f. Eb also increases and causes the armature current Ia to decrease. The motor will stop
accelerating when the armature current is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque
required by the load. It follows, therefore, that back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow
of armature current i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet the Load
requirement

Voltage Equation of a DC Motor

Fig.1: Equivalent circuit of DC motor

As shown in fig.1, the armature supply voltage V has to overcome the opposition posed by the
back emf Eb and some other voltage drops such as brush drop and the voltage drop across R a.
From fig.(1), we can write that,
V = Eb + IaRa + Vb ……………….(1)

But voltage drop across brushes is negligible. ∴ V = Eb + IaRa ……(2)

Power Equation:

If Eq.(2) above is multiplied by la throughout, we get,

V*Ia = Eb* Ia + Ia2Ra …………..(3)

This is known as power equation of the d.c. motor.

V*Ia = electric power supplied to armature (armature input)

 Eb*Ia = power developed by armature (armature output)

Ia2Ra = electric power wasted in armature (armature Cu loss)

Thus out of the armature input, a small portion (about 5%) is wasted as Ia2Ra and the remaining
portion Eb*Ia is converted into mechanical power within the armature.

Condition For Maximum Power:

Armature Torque of a DC Motor

Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the product of force (F)
and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts.
T=F*r

In dc motor, each conductor is acted upon by circumferential force, F at a distance r.

Speed of a DC Motor
Therefore, in a dc motor speed is directly proportional to back emf, Eb and inversely proportional
to flux ().
Speed Relations

Losses and Efficiency of a DC Motor

Losses in DC Motor: 1) Copper Loss, 2) Iron Loss, 3) Mechanical Loss. The efficiency of a d.c.
motor is the ratio of output power to the input power

Types of DC Motors
Like generators, there are three types of d.c. motors characterized by the connections of field
winding in relation to the armature viz.:
1. Shunt Motor
2. Series Motor
3. Compound Motor
1. Shunt Motor: Shunt-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature [See Fig. 4.4]. The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature
current. Shunt field windings are designed to produce the necessary m.m.f. by means of a relatively
large number of turns of wire having high resistance. Therefore, shunt field current is relatively
small compared with the armature current.
2. Series Motor: Series-wound motor in which the field winding is connected in series with the
armature [See Fig. 4.5]. Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current. Since the
current passing through a series field winding is the same as the armature current, series field
windings must be designed with much fewer turns than shunt field windings for the same m.m.f.
Therefore, a series field winding has a relatively small number of turns of thick wire and, therefore,
will possess a low resistance.
3. Compound Motor: Compound-wound motor which has two field windings; one connected in
parallel with the armature and the other in series with it. There are two types of compound motor
connections (like generators). When the shunt field winding is directly connected across the
armature terminals [See Fig. 4.6], it is called short-shunt connection. When the shunt winding is
so connected that it shunts the series combination of armature and series field [See Fig. 4.7], it is
called long-shunt connection. The compound machines (generators or motors) are always designed
so that the flux produced by shunt field winding is considerably larger than the flux produced by
the series field winding. Therefore, shunt field in compound machines is the basic dominant factor
in the production of the magnetic field in the machine.

DC Motor Characteristic
(i) Torque and armature current characteristics (Ta/Ia): It is the curve between armature torque
and armature current of a dc motor
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristics (N/Ia): It is the curve between speed and armature
current.
(iii) Speed and torque characteristics (N/Ta): It is the curve between speed and armature torque.

Characteristics of a shunt motor:

Characteristics of a Series Motor:

Characteristics of a compound motor:

Applications of DC Motor:
✓ Shunt Motor: The characteristics of a shunt motor reveal that it is an approximately
constant speed motor. Industrial Use: Lathes, Drills, Boring Mills, Shapers , Spinning, and
weaving machines.
✓ Series Motor: It is a variable speed motor i.e. speed is low at high torque and vice versa.
This motor is used when large starting torque is required. Industrial Use: Electric Traction
Cranes, Elevators, hair drier, Sewing machine
✓ Compound motor applications: Elevators, Rolling mills, Planers, Punches, Shears
1.3.2. Stepper motor

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into

discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates
indiscrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper
sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input
pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor
shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency
of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input
pulses applied.
Stepper motor types by construction: By construction there are 3 different types of
stepper motors: permanent magnet stepper, variable reluctance stepper and hybrid
synchronous stepper motor.
✓ The Permanent Magnet stepper has a permanent magnet rotor which is driven by the
stators windings. They create opposite polarity poles compared to the poles of the
rotor which propels the rotor.
✓ The next type, the Variable Reluctant stepper motor uses a non-magnetizes soft iron
rotor. The rotor has teeth that are offset from the stator and as we active the windings
in a particular order the rotor moves respectively so that it has minimum gab between
the stator and the teeth of the rotor.
✓ The Hybrid Synchronous motor is combinations of the previous two steppers. It has
permanent magnet toothed rotor and also a toothed stator. The rotor has two sections,
which are opposite in polarity and their teeth are offset
Operating modes: Stepper motor is a brushless DC motor that rotates in steps. This is
very useful because it can be precisely positioned without any feedback sensor, which
represents an open-loop controller. The stepper motor consists of a rotor that is generally
a permanent magnet and it is surrounded by the windings of the stator. As we activate
the windings step by step in a particular order and let a current flow through them they
will magnetize the stator and make electromagnetic poles respectively that will cause
propulsion to the motor.
The following are the operating modes of a stepper motor
a) Wave mode
b) Full step
c) Half step
d) Micro stepping
The magnitude of the step angle of the variable reluctance motor is given as
𝟑𝟔𝟎⁰
𝜶=
𝒎𝒔 𝑵𝒓
Where, α (alpha) is the step angle, ms is the number of stator phases, Nr is the number of
rotor teeth The step angle is expressed as shown below.
𝒎𝒔 −𝑵𝒓
𝜶= × 𝟑𝟔𝟎⁰
𝒎𝒔 𝑵𝒓
NS is the number of stator poles, Nr is the number of rotor poles.

Wave mode: In wave mode, only one phase at a time is energized (see Figure 11). For
simplicity, we will say that the current is flowing in a positive direction if it is going from
the + lead to the - lead of a phase (e.g. from A+ to A-); otherwise, the direction is
negative. Starting from the left, the current is flowing only in phase A in the positive
direction and the rotor, represented by a magnet, is aligned with the magnetic field
generated by it. In the next step, it flows only in phase B in the positive direction, and
the rotor spins 90° clockwise to align with the magnetic field generated by phase B.
Later, phase A is energized again, but the current flows in the negative direction, and the
rotor spins again by 90°. In the last step, the current flows negatively in phase B and the
rotor spins again by 90°.

Figure 11: Wave Mode Steps

Full-step mode: In full-step mode, two phases are always energized at the same time.
Figure 12 shows the different steps of this driving mode. The steps are similar to the
wave mode ones, the most significant difference being that with this mode, the motor is
able to produce a higher torque since more current is flowing in the motor and a stronger
magnetic field is generated.

Figure 12: Full-Step Mode Steps

Half-step mode: Half-step mode is a combination of wave and full-step modes (see
Figure 12). Using this combination allows for the step size to be reduced by half (in this
case, 45° instead of 90°). The only drawback is that the torque produced by the motor is
not constant, since it is higher when both phases are energized, and weaker when only
one phase is energized.

Figure 13: Half-Step Mode Steps

Micro-stepping mode: Micro-stepping can be seen as a further enhancement of half-step
mode, because it allows to reduce even further the step size and to have a constant torque
output. This is achieved by controlling the intensity of the current flowing in each phase.
Using this mode requires a more complex motor driver compared to the previous
solutions. Figure 14 shows how microstepping works. If IMAX is the maximum current
that can flow in a phase, starting from the left, in the first figure IA = IMAX and IB = 0.
In the next step, the currents are controlled to achieve IA = 0.92 x IMAX and IB = 0.38
x IMAX, which generates a magnetic field that is rotated by 22.5° clockwise compared
to the previous one. This step is repeated with different current values to reach the 45°,
67.5°, and 90° positions. This provides the ability to reduce by half the size of the step,
compared to the half-step mode; but it is possible to go even further. Using microstepping
helps reaching very high position resolution, but this advantage comes at the cost of a
more complex device to control the motor, and a smaller torque generated with each step.
Indeed, the torque is proportional to the sine of the angle between the stator magnetic
field and the rotor magnetic field; therefore, when the steps are smaller, the torque is
smaller. This may lead to missing some steps, meaning the rotor position does not change
even if the current in the stator winding has.

Figure 14: Micro-stepping mode

Stepper Motors Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
✓ Due to their internal structure, stepper motors do not require a sensor to detect the
motor position. Since the motor moves by performing “steps,” by simply counting
these steps, you can obtain the motor position at a given time.
✓ In addition, stepper motor control is pretty simple. The motor does need a driver, but
does not need complex calculations or tuning to work properly. In general, the control
effort is lower compared to other motors. With microstepping, you can reach high
position accuracy, up to approximately 0.007°.
✓ Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for holding position, and
also tend to have a long lifespan.

Disadvantages:
✓ They can miss a step if the load torque is too high. This negatively impacts the
control, since there is no way to know the real position of the motor. Using
microstepping makes stepper motors even more likely to experience this issue.
✓ These motors always drain maximum current even when still, which makes
efficiency worse and can cause overheating.
 ✓ Stepper motors have low torque and become pretty noisy at high speeds.
✓ Finally, stepper motors have low power density and a low torque-to-inertia ratio. To
summarize, stepper motors are good when you need an inexpensive, easy-to-control
solution and when efficiency and high torque at high speeds are not necessary.
✓ Efficiency is low
✓ The Torque of a motor will declines fast with speed
✓ Accuracy is low
✓ Feedback is not used for specifying potential missed steps
✓ Small Torque toward Inertia Ratio
✓ Extremely Noisy
✓ If the motor is not controlled properly then resonances can occur
✓ Operation of this motor is not easy at very high speeds.
✓ The dedicated control circuit is necessary
✓ As compared with DC motors, it uses more current

Applications:
The applications of stepper motor include the following.
✓ Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine
tooling automated production equipment.
✓ Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
✓ Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found
inside digital dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators, and blood analysis
machinery.
✓ Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera
focus and zoom functions.

1.4. Inertial measurement unit

An inertial measurement unit (IMU) is an electronic sensor that uses a combination of

accelerometers, gyroscopes, and sometimes magnetometers to measure and report an object's
specific force, angular rate, and orientation. IMUs are crucial for navigation and stabilization
in applications like autonomous vehicles, drones, and aircraft, and are also found in everyday
devices such as smartphones and gaming controllers.
 How it works:
✓ Accelerometers: Measure acceleration, or the rate of change of velocity, along three
orthogonal axes. They can detect forces such as gravity and movement.
✓ Gyroscopes: Measure angular velocity, or the rate of rotation, around three orthogonal axes
(pitch, roll, and yaw).
✓ Magnetometers: Measure magnetic field strength, which is used to determine the IMU's
heading relative to the Earth's magnetic field. When a magnetometer is included, the device
is sometimes called an Inertial Measurement and Magnetic Unit (IMMU).
✓ Microcontroller: An integrated microcontroller collects data from the sensors and can
improve performance, such as by helping to correct for sensor bias.

Applications:

✓ Navigation: Provides real-time data on orientation, velocity, and acceleration, enabling

autonomous vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft to navigate accurately.

✓ Stabilization: Keeps devices like cameras, gimbals, and antennas steady by constantly
measuring and compensating for motion.

✓ Consumer Electronics: Used in smartphones, TV remotes, and gaming controllers for

motion sensing and user interface control.

✓ Robotics: Essential for robotic systems to understand their position and orientation,
allowing for precise movement and balance.

Advantages of Inertial Measurement Unit

Inertial Measurement Units have gained widespread use in various applications due to their
numerous advantages, making them a preferred choice in many fields. Some of the key
advantages include:
✓ Compact and light design: One standout feature is their compact and lightweight design,
making them particularly well-suited for technologies where size and weight matter, such as
in the development of drones, robots, and wearables. The portability and unobtrusiveness of
IMUs enhance their integration into devices without compromising overall form and
functionality.

✓ Versatility in different environments: Unlike some navigation systems reliant on GPS, IMUs
can seamlessly operate in GPS-challenged environments, including tunnels or indoor spaces.
This adaptability makes IMUs a reliable choice for scenarios where consistent navigation is
essential, regardless of the surroundings.

✓ Continuous measurements: The continuous measurement capability of IMUs is a standout

advantage, especially in dynamic scenarios. Whether tracking the movement of a vehicle or
an individual, IMUs excel in providing real-time data. This feature is invaluable in
applications ranging from sports tracking to vehicle navigation, where the need for instant
and precise information is paramount.
✓ Cost-effectiveness: In comparison to alternative navigation systems, IMUs are relatively
affordable. This economic aspect contributes to their widespread adoption, particularly in
consumer electronics, where cost-efficient production is a key consideration for market
competitiveness.
Limitations:

✓ Drift over time: Over time, errors in the sensors can accumulate, causing a drift in the
calculated position and orientation.
✓ Calibration: Accuracy depends heavily on proper calibration, which can be affected by
factors like temperature, sensor bias, and misalignment.
✓ Signal interference: Without a magnetometer, IMUs can be susceptible to magnetic
interference, though they are still functional for navigation when used with other systems
like GPS.

✓ Calibration requirements: Calibration emerges as a practical requirement for IMUs.

This process, though essential for maintaining accurate measurements, can be intricate
and time-consuming. The need for specialized equipment and expertise in calibration
adds to the overall complexity of integrating IMUs into systems and devices.

2. Mechanical actuating systems: types of motion, kinematic chains, cams and gears

Types of motion: The motion of any rigid body can be considered to be a combination of
translation and rotational motions.
Translation motion is a movement which can be resolved into components along one or more
of the three axis x,y or z
A rotational motion is one which has components rotating about one or more of the axis.

Figure 8.1 Types of motion: (a) translational, (b) rotational

A complex motion is the combination of the translation and rotation motions. Example of
complex motion: Instruct a robot to pick up a pencil from a table- you should breakup motion
into small simple motion, e.g. instruct joint 1 to rotate by 20 degrees then link 2 to be
extended by 4 mm….etc.
Mechanical actuating systems are mechanisms designed to convert input energy—usually in
the form of rotational or linear motion—into a controlled mechanical output. They are used
to transmit, transform, or regulate motion and force within machines.

Kinematic chains:
A kinematic chain is a series of rigid bodies, called links, connected by kinematic
pairs (joints) to provide constrained motion. These chains are the basis for mechanical
systems and can be either open (with a free end) or closed (where the first and last links are
connected). These chains transmit motion and force through connected components.
Examples include four-bar linkages, robotic arms, and bicycle chains. When one link in a
kinematic chain is fixed, it becomes a mechanism.

Cams:
A cam is a specially shaped rotating or sliding component that drives a follower. As the cam
moves, its profile forces the follower to move in a predetermined pattern. Cams convert
rotary motion into precise linear or oscillatory motion (e.g., engine valve systems).
A cam is a body which rotates or oscillate and in doing so, imparts a reciprocating or
oscillatory motion to a second body called the follower, with which it is in contact.
As the cam rotates so the follower is made to rise, dwell and fall; the length of times spent
at each of these positions depends on the shape of the cam The rise section: is the one that
drives the follower upwards, the fall section: is the one that lowers the follower. The dwell
section is the one that allows the follower to remain at the same level for a significant period
of time. It is circular with a radius that does not change.
 Figure 8.10 Cam and cam follower

Gears:
Gears are toothed wheels that mesh together to transmit motion and power between rotating
shafts. They can change the speed, torque, and direction of motion. Common examples
include spur gears, bevel gears, and worm gears.

3. Pneumatic and hydraulic actuating systems: diaphragms, bellows and control valves.

Pneumatic systems use compressed air to create motion, making them fast and inexpensive to install,
while hydraulic systems use pressurized fluid to generate high force and precision.

Diaphragm: Diaphragm actuators are primarily pneumatically or hydraulically operated devices

that use pressure on a flexible membrane (diaphragm) to generate mechanical motion. This motion
is typically linear and is widely used to control flow in valves and dampers in industrial automation
and process control systems.

✓ The movement of a diaphragm is a convenient way of sensing a pressure.

✓ The unknown pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm.
✓ The edge of the diaphragm is rigidly fixed and this causes a deflection.
✓ The displacement of the centre of the diaphragm may be measured to know the value of the
pressure, because the deflection is directly proportional to the pressure.
✓ In order to obtain larger deflections, two corrugated diaphragms may be welded, brazed or
soldered to form a Capsule.
✓ The diaphragms are usually made of mild steel.
The movement of a diaphragm is a convenient way of sensing a pressure. The unknown pressure is
applied to one side of the diaphragm. The edge of the diaphragm is rigidly fixed and this causes a
deflection. The displacement of the centre of the diaphragm may be measured in order to know the
value of the pressure, because the deflection is directly proportional to the pressure. The diaphragms
are of two types: (i) Flat, and (ii) Corrugated.
The diaphragms may be membranes. However, it is usual to employ thin circular plates which may
either be clamped around their circumference between two solid rings or are machined from a solid
piece of metal. A flat diaphragm is shown in Fig. 2.

(a) Flat diaphragm; (b) Corrugated diaphragm

Fig. 2. Flat diaphragm

𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝑬𝒕𝟑 𝒅𝒎
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 (𝑷) = N/m2
𝟑(𝟏−𝝂𝟐 )𝑫𝟒

E =Young's modulus; N/m2

t = thickness of diaphragm; m

D = diameter of diaphragm; m

ν =Poisson's ratio

dm = deflection at the centre of the diaphragm; m.

The above relationship between pressure (P), and the deflection at the centre (dm) is linear. But
linearity holds good as long as dm dm ≤ 0.5t and not otherwise. The maximum stress at the
circumference of diaphragm is:

𝟑𝑫𝟐 𝑷
𝑺𝒎 = N/m2
𝟏𝟔𝒕𝟐

The lowest natural frequency for air or gas medium is:

 𝟐𝟎𝒕 𝑬
𝝎𝒏 =
𝑫𝟐
√𝟑𝝆(𝟏−𝝂𝟐 ) rad/s

where p =density of diaphragm material, kg/m3.

Corrugated diaphragms give a larger· displacement which may be about 2 per cent of' diaphragm
diameter. In order to obtain larger deflections, two corrugated diaphragms may be welded, brazed
or soldered to form a Capsule. The diaphragms are usually made of mild steel.

Bellows:

Bellows is a thin-walled tube approximately (0.1 mm thick) having a corrugated shape. It is made
from a single piece of metal, usually special brass or stainless steel. Bellows is essentially a pressure
activated spring. The displacement of the Bellows for a particular pressure depends upon the type
and the thickness of the material used.

It is observed from above that the action of the Bourdon tube, the diaphragm and the Bellows are
all based upon the elastic deformations brought out by the force resulting from pressure summation.
The deformations or mechanical displacements are normally very small to be detectable with good
accuracy by mechanical means and hence secondary transducers which are electrical in nature have
to be used invariably and probably compulsorily in order that the output is in a intelligible and
interpretable form.

Control valves:
The control action in any control loop system, is executed by the final control element. The most
common type of final control element used in chemical and other process control is the control
valve. A control valve is normally driven by a diaphragm type pneumatic actuator 68 that throttles
the flow of the manipulating variable for obtaining the desired control action. A control valve
essentially consists of a plug and a stem. The stem can be raised or lowered by air pressure and the
plug changes the effective area of an orifice in the flow path. A typical control valve action can be
explained using Fig.10. When the air pressure increases, the downward force of the diaphragm
moves the stem downward against the spring.

Classifications Control valves are available in different types and shapes. They can be classified in
different ways; based on: (a) action, (b) number of plugs, and (c) flow characteristics.
 Fig. 10 Control valve

Classification of Control Valves:

Control valves are available in different types and shapes. They can be classified in different ways
based on

✓ Action
✓ Number of plugs
✓ Flow characteristics.

Classification of Control Valves based on Action:

Air to Open: If the air supply fails, the control valve will be fully closed

Air to Close: If the air supply fails, the control valve will be fully open.

Control valves operated through pneumatic actuators can be either (i) air to open, or (ii) air to close.
They are designed such that if the air supply fails, the control valve will be either fully open, or fully
closed, depending upon the safety requirement of the process. For example, if the valve is used to
control steam or fuel flow, the valve should be shut off completely in case of air failure. On the other
hand, if the valve is handling cooling water to a reactor, the flow should be maximum in case of
emergency. The schematic arrangements of these two actions are shown in Figure below. Valve A
are air to close type, indicating, if the air fails, the valve will be fully open. Opposite is the case for
valve B.
Classification of Control Valves based on Number of Plugs

Control valves can also be characterized in terms of the number of plugs present, as single seated
valve and double-seated valve. The difference in construction between a single seated and double-
seated valve are illustrated in Fig.

Here, only one plug is present in the control valve, so it is single seated valve. The advantage of this
type of valve is that, it can be fully closed and flow variation from 0 to 100% can be achieved. But
looking at its construction, due to the pressure drop across the orifice a large upward force is present
in the orifice area, and as a result, the force required to move the valve against this upward thrust is
also large. Thus this type of valves is more suitable for small flow rates. On the other hand, there
are two plugs in a double-seated valve; flow moves upward in one orifice area, and downward in
the other orifice. The resultant upward or downward thrust is almost zero. As a result, the force
required to move a double-seated valve is comparatively much less. But the double-seated valve
suffers from one disadvantage. The flow cannot be shut off completely, because of the differential
temperature expansion of the stem and the valve seat. If one plug is tightly closed, there is usually
a small gap between the other plug and its seat. Thus, single-seated valves are recommended for
when the valves are required to be shut off completely. But there are many processes, where the
valve used is not expected to operate near shut off position. For this condition, double-seated valves
are recommended.
Classification of Control Valves based on Flow Characteristics:

Flow Characteristics describes how the flow rate changes with the movement or lift of the stem. The
shape of the plug primarily decides the flow characteristics. The flow characteristic of a valve is
normally defined in terms of Inherent characteristics and Effective characteristics. An inherent
characteristic is the ideal flow characteristics of a control valve and is decided by the shape and size
of the plug. When the valve is connected to a pipeline, its overall performance is decided by its
effective characteristic. Based on inherent/ideal characteristics, control valves are classified into
three such as Quick opening, Linear and Equal Percentage.
The shape of the plug decides, how the flow rate changes with the stem movement, or lift when the
pressure drop across the valve is assumed to be held constant. This classification is basically done
on relationship between the valve stem position and the flow rate through the valve. As the stem and
plug move with respect to the seat/orifice, the shape of the plug determines the amount of actual
opening of the valve.
Quick Opening Type: This type of valve is used predominantly for full ON/full OFF control
applications. The valve characteristics shows that a relatively small motion of the valve stem results
in maximum possible flow rate through the valve. Such a valve, for example, may allow 90% of
maximum flow rate with only a 30% travel of the stem.

Linear Type: This type of valve has a flow rate that varies linearly with the stem position. It
represents the ideal situation where the valve alone determines the pressure drop.

Equal Percentage Type: A very important type of valve employed in flow control has a
characteristic such that a given percentage change in stem position produces an equivalent change
in flow—that is, an equal percentage. Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow
completely in its limit of stem travel. Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem is at
one limit of its travel. At the other extreme, the valve allows a flow Qmax as its maximum, open-
valve flow rate.

Directional Control Valves: In directional control valves, it is basically the directions of the flows
that are controlled and not the magnitudes. Directional valves can be characterized depending on
the number of ports, the number of directions of flow that can be established, number of positions
of the valve etc. They are mainly classified in terms of the number of flow directions, such as one-
way, two way or fourway valves. Directional valves are often operated in selected modes using
hydraulic pressure from remote locations. Such mechanisms are known as pilots. Thus a valve that
may be blocking the flow in a certain direction in absence of pilot pressure, may be allowing flow,
when pilot pressure is applied.
Check Valve: In its simplest form, a check valve is a one-way directional valve. It permits free flow
in one direction and blocks flow in the other. It is analogous to the electronic diode. Symbol of check
valve is shown below. The direction of the arrow shows the direction for free flow.

In its simplest form of construction, a check valve is realized as an in-line ball and spring. Pressure
from the left moves the ball from its seat so to permit unobstructed flow. Pressure from right pushes
the ball tight on to the seat, and flow is blocked. In some valves a poppet is used in place of the ball.
In some other construction, the valve inlet and outlet ports are made at right angles.

When flow is from right to left, the valve is closed

Pilot-operated Check Valves: Pilot-operated check valves are designed to permit free flow in one
direction and to block return flow, unless pilot pressure is applied. However, under pilot pressure,
flow is permitted in both directions. They are used in hydraulic presses as prefill valves – to permit
the main ram to fill by gravity during the “fast approach” part of the stroke. They also are used to
support vertical pistons which otherwise might drift downward due to leakage past the directional
valve spool. With no pilot pressure, the valve functions as a normal check valve. Flow to bottom is
permitted but the reverse is blocked. If pilot pressure is applied, the valve is open at all times, and
flow is allowed freely in both directions.
The check valve poppet has the pilot piston attached to the poppet stem. A light spring holds the
poppet seated in a no-flow condition by pushing against the pilot piston. A separate drain port is
provided to prevent oil from creating a pressure build-up on the underside of the piston. Reverse
flow can occur only when a pressure that can overcome the pressure in the outlet chamber is applied.
Possible application of the valve can be to permit free flow to the accumulator, while blocking flow
out of it. If the pilot is actuated the accumulator can discharge if the pressure at the inlet port is lower
than the accumulator pressure.

Relief Valves: Relief valves are used for regulation of pressure in hydraulic systems for protection
of equipment and personnel. The spring keeps the valve shut until a pressure set by an adjustable
spring tension is reached which pushes the spring up to relief the pressure by connecting the inlet to
the drain.