Protection of Alternators

Alternator faults are broadly classified into:

Stator Winding Faults

1. Phase-to-earth fault
→ Occurs when a phase conductor touches ground
→ Most common fault

2. Phase-to-phase fault
→ Short circuit between two phases
→ Produces heavy fault current

3. Inter-turn fault
→ Short circuit between turns of same phase
→ Difficult to detect initially

4. Overloading
→ Temperature may rise to a dangerous level
→ Winding insulation gets damaged

Rotor Faults

1. Field-ground fault
→ One point grounding is not severe
→ Second ground → dangerous

2. Loss of excitation
→ Field current is lost
→ Machine behaves like an induction generator
→ Draws reactive power

3. Rotor overheating (due to unbalanced stator currents)

→ Caused by negative sequence currents
→ Induces double-frequency currents in rotor
→ Leads to heating
Stator Protection:

Earth-fault or phase-to-phase fault in stator winding

The Merz–Price circulating current protection scheme is a differential protection method used to
protect the stator windings of an alternator against internal faults, and it operates on the principle
that under normal conditions the current entering the protected zone is equal to the current
leaving it.

Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of current differential protection for a 3-phase alternator.
Identical current transformer pairs CT1 and CT2 are placed on either side of each phase of the
stator windings. The secondaries of each set of current transformers are connected in star; the
two neutral points and the corresponding terminals of the two star groups being connected
together by means of a four-core pilot cable. Thus there is an independent path for the currents
circulating in each pair of current transformers and the corresponding pilot P.
Operation: Referring to Fig. it is clear that the relays are connected in shunt across each
circulating path.
Under normal operating conditions, the current at both ends of each winding will be equal and
hence the currents in the secondaries of two CTs connected in any phase will also be equal.
Therefore, there is balanced circulating current in the pilot wires and no current flows through
the operating coils (R1, R2 and R3) of the relays.
When an earth-fault or phase-to-phase fault occurs, this condition no longer holds good and
the differential current flowing through the relay circuit operates the relay to trip the circuit
breaker.
(i) Suppose an earth fault occurs on phase R due to breakdown of its insulation to earth as
shown in Fig. The current in the affected phase winding will flow through the core and
frame of the machine to earth, the circuit being completed through the neutral earthing
resistance. The currents in the secondaries of the two CTs in phase R will become
unequal and the difference of the two currents will flow through the corresponding relay
coil (i.e. R1), returning via the neutral pilot. Consequently, the relay operates to trip the
circuit breaker.
(ii) Imagine that now a short-circuit fault occurs between the phases Y and B as shown in
Fig. The short-circuit current circulates via the neutral end connection through the two
windings and through the fault as shown by the dotted arrows. The currents in the
secondaries of two CTs in each affected phase will become unequal and the differential
current will flow through the operating coils of the relays (i.e. R2 and R3) connected in
these phases. The relay then closes its contacts to trip the circuit breaker.

Stator Inter-turn fault Protection

Merz-price circulating-current system protects against phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase

faults. It does not protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same phase winding of the stator. It is
because the current that this type of fault produces flows in a local circuit between the turns
involved and does not create a difference between the currents entering and leaving the winding
at its two ends where current transformers are applied. However, it is usually considered
unnecessary to provide protection for inter-turn faults because they invariably develop into earth-
faults.
In single turn generator (e.g. large steam-turbine generators), there is no necessity of protection
against inter-turn faults. However, inter-turn protection is provided for multi-turn generators
such as hydro-electric generators. These generators have double-winding armatures (i.e. each
phase wind ing is divided into two halves) owing to the very heavy currents which they have to
carry. Advantage may be taken of this necessity to protect inter-turn faults on the same winding.

Fig. 1

Fig. 1 shows the schematic arrangement of circulating-current and inter-turn protection of a 3-

phase double wound generator. The relays RC provide protection against phase-to-ground and
phase-to-phase faults whereas relays R1 provide protection against inter-turn faults.

Fig. 2
Fig. 2 shows the duplicate stator windings S1 and S2 of one phase only with a provision against
inter-turn faults.
Two current transformers are connected on the circulating-current principle. Under normal
conditions, the currents in the stator windings S1 and S2 are equal and so will be the currents in
the secondaries of the two CTs. The secondary current round the loop then is the same at all
points and no current flows through the relay R1. If a short-circuit develops between adjacent
turns, say on S1, the currents in the stator windings S1 and S2 will no longer be equal. Therefore,
unequal currents will be induced in the secondaries of CTs and the difference of these two
currents flows through the relay R1. The relay then closes its contacts to clear the generator from
the system.

Balanced Earth-fault Protection (Restricted Earth fault Protection)

In small-size alternators, the neutral ends of the three-phase windings are often connected
internally to a single terminal. Therefore, it is not possible to use Merz-Price circulating current
principle described above because there are no facilities for accommodating the necessary
current transformers in the neutral connection of each phase winding. Under these circumstances,
it is considered sufficient to provide protection against earth-faults only by the use of balanced
earth-fault protection scheme. This scheme provides no protection against phase-to-phase faults,
unless and until they develop into earth-faults, as most of them will.

Schematic arrangement: Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a balanced earth-fault

protection for a 3-phase alternator. It consists of three line current transformers, one mounted in
each phase, having their secondaries connected in parallel with that of a single current
transformer in the conductor joining the star point of the alternator to earth. A relay is connected
across the transformers secondaries. The protection against earth faults is limited to the region
between the neutral and the line current transformers.
Operation: Under normal operating conditions, the currents flowing in the alternator leads and
hence the currents flowing in secondaries of the line current transformers add to zero and no
current flows through the relay. Also under these conditions, the current in the neutral wire is
zero and the secondary of neutral current transformer supplies no current to the relay.

If an earth-fault develops at F2 external to the protected zone, the sum of the currents at the
terminals of the alternator is exactly equal to the current in the neutral connection and hence no
current flows through the relay. When an earth-fault occurs at F1 or within the protected zone,
these currents are no longer equal and the differential current flows through the operating coil of
the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to disconnect the alternator from the system.
Overheating Protection

What are the causes of stator over-heating in an alternator and describe the protection
scheme used to prevent damage.

Overheating of the stator winding is one of the major problems in alternators, as it may lead to
insulation failure and eventual damage to the machine. Hence, proper protection against
overheating is essential.

The following are the main causes of overheating in the stator winding:

1. Continuous Balanced Overloading: When the alternator operates under sustained

overload conditions, the stator current increases beyond the rated value. This results in
increased copper losses (I2R), leading to excessive heating.
2. Failure of Cooling System: The cooling system is responsible for removing heat
generated in the stator. Any failure in the cooling arrangement, such as malfunctioning
fans or blocked ventilation, causes temperature rise.
3. Core Faults (Short-Circuited Laminations): Insulation failure between laminations
results in circulating eddy currents, which produce localized heating in the stator core.
4. Failure of Core Bolt Insulation: If the insulation of core bolts fails, it leads to
circulating currents through the bolts, causing additional heating in the core.

The most reliable method of detecting overheating is by means of resistance temperature detector
(RTD) embedded at various points in the stator slots as shown in fig. This protection system
consists of a balanced bridge (Wheatstone bridge). One arm of this bridge has an RTD.
Under normal conditions, the bridge is in a balanced condition and no current flows through the
relay; hence, the relay ‘R’ does not operate.

The RTD has a positive temperature coefficient

coefficient. Its resistance increases with increase in
temperature (i.e., R ∝ T).

If there is any overload in the stator, temperature increases and the resistance of RTD increase.
Due to this, the potential at points A and B will not be equal. Hence, the unbalanced current
flows through the relay. So the relay will operate and close the contacts of the trip circuit.

Effect of Earth Resistance on % of Winding Unprotected

The earth resistance has a significant effect on the percentage of the stator winding that remains
unprotected during earth faults. The resistance R is connected between the neutral point of the
alternator and earth in order to limit the earth fault current, as shown in Fig. Thus, the magnitude
of the earth
rth fault current depends upon the value of the resistance R.
If the value of R is very small, that is, when the neutral is almost solidly grounded, the earth fault
current becomes very high. However, such high fault currents are undesirable, and therefore
theref a
small value of resistance is not preferred for large machines.

For low values of resistance R, it is selected such that full

full-load
load current flows through the neutral
at full line-to-neutral
neutral voltage V. In the case of medium resistance grounding, the earth
ear fault
current is limited to about 200 A for full line
line-to-neutral
neutral voltage, typically in a 60 MW machine.
For high resistance grounding, the earth fault current is further limited to about 10 A, and this
method is commonly used in distribution transformer
transformers and generator–transformer
transformer units.

As the value of earth resistance R increases, the earth fault current decreases, and consequently a
smaller portion of the stator winding is protected, resulting in a larger percentage of the winding
remaining unprotected.

Let,

V = Full line-to-neutral
neutral voltage

I = Full load current of the largest capacity generator

R = Earth resistance

Then, the value of earth resistance is given by:

The percentage of winding unprotected is given by,

where, I0 = Minimum operating current in the primary of the current transformer (C.T.).

If the relay setting is 15%, then I0 is equal to 15% of the full load current of the largest machine.

Rotor Protection

Rotor Earth Fault Protection by D.C. Injection Method

The rotor carries the field winding, which is normally kept isolated from the ground. Neither the
positive nor the negative terminal of the DC supply is grounded. Therefore, a single ground fault
on the rotor field winding does not immediately affect the operation of the alternator. However,
if a second ground fault occurs, a portion of the rotor winding may become short-circuited. This
results in the production of a secondary flux that opposes the main flux near the shorted turns,
thereby causing distortion in the flux distribution.

Due to this distortion, the flux becomes concentrated on one pole and dispersed over the other
poles and surrounding surfaces. This leads to asymmetry in electromagnetic forces, which in turn
causes severe rotor vibrations. In modern turbo-alternators, the inertia of rotation is very high
and the clearance between rotor and stator is very small; hence, such vibrations can result in
permanent damage to the machine. In extreme cases, severe mechanical stresses may even lead
to structural damage.

In view of these effects, it is essential to detect the very first earth fault in the field winding and
take appropriate tripping action in a controlled manner. Accordingly, suitable protection schemes
are employed for rotor earth fault detection.

An arrangement for rotor earth fault detection and protection is shown in Fig.
A d.c voltage bias is impressed between the field circuit and earth through a polarised moving
iron relay. When an earth fault occurs in the field winding, the d.c bias causes the current to flow
through the relay ‘R’ and it operates, since the circuit is completed through the d.c bias relay and
the earth fault. It is not necessary to trip the generator, when a single field
field-earth
earth fault occurs,
usually an alarm is sounded.
unded. Then immediate steps are taken to transfer the load from the faulty
generator and shut it down as quickly as possible to avoid further damages.

Protection against Unbalanced Loading

When the load on the generator becomes unbalanced, negative phase sequence currents flow.
The negative sequence components produce a rotating magnetic field which rotates at
synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rotor field. Hence effectively
e the
relative speed between the two is double the synchronous speed. Thus double frequency currents
are induced in the rotor. These currents cause severe heating of the rotor and can cause damage
to the rotor. The unbalanced stator currents also cause severe vibrations and heating of stator.
Hence it is necessary to provide the negative sequence protection to the generators against the
unbalanced load conditions.

The negative phase sequence filter along with the overcurrent relay as shown in fig. provides the
necessary protection against the unbalanced loads.

A negative phase sequence filter is connected to the secondaries of the current transformers. A
negative phase sequence filter consists of resistors and inductors. These are so arranged that
under normal operating conditions, the relay is inoperative. The filter circuit is stable for the
symmetrical overloads up to about three times the rated full load.

When unbalanced load occurs, the negative phase sequence filter circuit produces an output
proportional to the negative phase sequence components. This is directed through the relay coil.
Hence the relay operates to open the circuit breaker to isolate the generator.