1.

1 Analog Data Communication,

Data Representation & Data Flows
 Analog Data Communication
• Analog data is continuous and varies smoothly
over time.
• Represented by sine waves with parameters:
amplitude, frequency, and phase.
• Used in traditional telephone systems, AM/FM
radio, etc.
• Analog transmission can be affected by noise
and distortion.
Analog Signal – Sine Wave Parameters
• Amplitude: Height of the wave – signal
strength.
• Frequency: Number of cycles per second (Hz).
• Phase: Position of the wave relative to time
zero.
 Data Representation
• Data can be represented in two forms: Analog
and Digital.
• Analog data: Continuous values (e.g., human
voice, temperature).
• Digital data: Discrete values (e.g., text,
integers, binary).
• Representation depends on the medium and
system used.
 Examples of Data Representation
• Analog: Audio recorded on a cassette tape.
• Digital: Audio stored as MP3 files on a
computer.
• Digital data is easier to store, compress, and
transmit over long distances.
 Data Flow Types
• Data flow refers to the direction of data
transmission between devices.
• Three types of data flow:
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex
 1. Simplex
• Data flows in one direction only.
• One device is the sender, the other is the
receiver.
• Example: Keyboard to computer.
 2. Half-Duplex
• Data flows in both directions, but only one at a
time.
• Devices take turns to send and receive.
• Example: Walkie-talkies.
 3. Full-Duplex
• Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
• More efficient and faster communication.
• Example: Telephone conversation.
[Insert Diagram showing bidirectional
communication]
 Applications in Modern Networks
• Analog communication: Legacy telephony,
analog CCTV.
• Digital communication: VoIP, Internet, data
centers.
• Full-duplex systems dominate modern
networking (Ethernet, mobile).
• Understanding data types and flows helps
design efficient systems.
Basic block diagram of communication
system

The block diagram of a communication system will have five blocks,

including the information source, transmitter, channel, receiver and
destination blocks.
 Information source

• The objective of any communication system is to convey information from one

point to the other. The information comes from the information source, which
originates it

• Information is a very generic word signifying at the abstract level anything

intended for communication, which may include some thoughts, news, feeling,
visual scene, and so on.

• The information source converts this information into physical quantity.

• The physical manifestation of the information is termed as message signal

 Transmitter

• The objective of the transmitter block is to collect the incoming

message signal and modify it in a suitable fashion (if needed),
such that, it can be transmitted via the chosen channel to the
receiving point.

• Channel is a physical medium which connects the transmitter

block with the receiver block.

• The functionality of the transmitter block is mainly decided by

the type or nature of the channel chosen for communication.
 Channel

• Channel is the physical medium which connects the transmitter

with that of the receiver.

• The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial cable, fibre

optic cable, wave guide and free space or atmosphere.

• The choice of a particular channel depends on the feasibility and

also the purpose of the communication system.
 Receiver

• The receiver block receives the incoming modified

version of the message signal from the channel and
processes it to recreate the original (non-electrical) form
of the message signal.

• There are a great variety of receivers in communication

systems, depending on the processing required to
recreate the original message signal and also final
presentation of the message to the destination.
 Destination

• The destination is the final block in the

communication system which receives the
message signal and processes it to comprehend
the information present in it.

• Usually, humans will be the destination block.

Elements of Digital Communication
• Source
• The source can be an analog signal. Example: A Sound signal
• Input Transducer
• This is a transducer which takes a physical input and converts it
to an electrical signal (Example: microphone). This block also
consists of an analog to digital converter where a digital signal is
needed for further processes.
• A digital signal is generally represented by a binary sequence.
• Source Encoder
• The source encoder compresses the data into minimum number
of bits. This process helps in effective utilization of the
bandwidth. It removes the redundant bits
unnecessaryexcessbits,i.e.,zeroes.
• Channel Encoder
• The channel encoder, does the coding for error correction.
During the transmission of the signal, due to the noise in the
channel, the signal may get altered and hence to avoid this, the
channel encoder adds some redundant bits to the transmitted
data. These are the error correcting bits.
• Digital Modulator
• The signal to be transmitted is modulated here by a carrier. The
signal is also converted to analog from the digital sequence, in
order to make it travel through the channel or medium.
• Channel
• The channel or a medium, allows the analog signal to transmit
from the transmitter end to the receiver end.
• Digital Demodulator
• This is the first step at the receiver end. The received signal is
demodulated as well as converted again from analog to digital. The
signal gets reconstructed here.
• Channel Decoder
• The channel decoder, after detecting the sequence, does some error
corrections. The distortions which might occur during the transmission,
are corrected by adding some redundant bits. This addition of bits
helps in the complete recovery of the original signal.
• Source Decoder
• The resultant signal is once again digitized by sampling and quantizing
so that the pure digital output is obtained without the loss of
information. The source decoder recreates the source output.
• Output Transducer
• This is the last block which converts the signal into
the original physical form, which was at the input of
the transmitter. It converts the electrical signal into
physical output (Example: loud speaker).
• Output Signal
• This is the output which is produced after the whole
process. Example − The sound signal received.
• This unit has dealt with the introduction, the
digitization of signals, the advantages and the
elements of digital communications.
 1.2 Evolution of data communication
• Understand the historical development of
data communication.
• Identify key technological milestones.
• Explain the transition from analog to digital
communication.
• Appreciate the role of data communication in
modern networks
 Early Communication Methods
• Smoke signals, drums, mirrors, and
messengers.
• Limitations: Slow, unreliable, short-distance.
• No standard format or encoding.
• Used primarily for military or signaling
purposes.
 Telegraph & Telephone Era
• Telegraph (1830s–1840s)
– Samuel Morse developed Morse code.
– Used electrical signals over wires.
– First form of wired communication.
• Telephone (1876)
– Invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
– Enabled real-time voice communication over long
distances.
– 📞 Revolutionized personal and business
communication.
 Birth of Analog Communication
• Analog Signals: Continuous waveforms that vary
over time.
• Modulation Techniques: AM, FM, PM enabled
signal transmission over radio waves.
• Widely used in:
– Radio broadcasting
– Analog telephony
– TV transmission
• 📞 Challenge: Signal degradation over long
distances (noise).
Emergence of Digital Communication
• Digital Signals: Discrete values (0s and 1s).
• Advantages:
– Less noise-sensitive
– Higher data security and integrity
– Easy compression and multiplexing
• 📞 First Computers (1950s): Led to the need
for faster data communication between
systems.
 Key Milestones

Year Milestone

1969 ARPANET: First packet-switched network

Local Area Networks (LANs) gained

1980s
popularity

1990s Rise of the Internet and email

Mobile and wireless communication

2000s
boom

2010s–Today Cloud computing, IoT, 5G

 Modern Data Communication
• Uses fiber optics, wireless, satellite, and
internet technologies.
• Supports:
– Voice
– Video conferencing
– Streaming
– IoT devices
• 📞 Real-time communication across the globe.
• ARPANET used the concept of packet switching network consisting of
subnet and host computers.
• The subnet was a datagram subnet and each subnet consists of
minicomputers called IMPs (Interface Message Processors).
1.3 A communication model,
data communication model
1.4 Networks (LAN, WAN), simplified
network architecture, the OSI model
LAN
WAN
 OSI Model
• Open System
Interconnect is an
open standard for
all communication
systems.
• OSI model is
established by
International
Standard
Organization (ISO).
This model has
seven layers:
• Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface
to the application user. This layer encompasses protocols which
directly interact with the user.
• Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format
of remote host should be presented in the native format of host.
• Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts.
For example, once user/password authentication is done, the
remote host maintains this session for a while and does not ask for
authentication again in that time span.
• Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery
between hosts.
• Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and
uniquely addressing hosts in a network.
• Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing
data from and onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
• Physical Layer: This layer
 1.5 Data communication and
networking for today enterprise
• Importance in Enterprises
• Data communication is critical for efficient and
competitive business operations.
• Enterprises demand faster transmission
speeds and higher network capacity.
 Key Driving Trends
• Traffic Growth
– Increasing local and long-distance voice/data traffic
– Growth driven by office automation, remote access, and online transactions
• Expansion of Services
– Rise in service offerings increases bandwidth needs
– High-speed network availability encourages more services
• Technology Advancements
– Cheaper, faster computing and communication (optical fiber, DWDM)
– Adoption of Gigabit and 10-Gbps Ethernet
– Smart networks with QoS and customizable services
• Internet, Web & Intranets
– Intranet and extranet adoption for secure communication
– Internet opens global business opportunities
• Mobility Trends
– Technologies like wireless, VPNs, cell phones enable mobile workforce
– High-speed wireless access supports remote enterprise operations
• Need for Transmission Speed & Network
Capacity
• Mutual growth: more users → more traffic →
need for faster networks
• Web-based services demand high bandwidth
(e.g., video, images)
• High-Speed LAN Requirements
• Modern LANs must support:
– Centralized server farms (e.g., image/data-heavy
apps)
– Power workgroups (e.g., CAD, software testing)
– High-speed backbones for LAN-to-LAN
connections
• Corporate WAN Needs
• Transition from centralized to distributed
computing
• Shift to client/server and intranet-based systems
• Graphical user interfaces increase data intensity
• More WAN traffic due to web access and
telecommuting
• Traditional 80% local / 20% WAN traffic model no
longer valid
• Digital Electronics Impact
• Growth of digital consumer devices
• Higher network loads due to multimedia
sharing and streaming
• Web integration of rich content (video,
graphics) fuels network demand