Unit- I

Introduction

Network Hardware–Software–Reference Models–OSI and TCP/IP Models –

Example Networks: Internet, ATM, Ethernet and Wireless LANs - Physical
Layer –Communication - Guided Transmission Media

Computer Networks – Definition

The term computer network is an interconnected collection of
autonomous computers. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they
are able to exchange information from one system to other systems through
one or more transmission media. The transmission media may be telephone
lines, cables, microwaves, infrared and communication satellites channels
etc.
Use of Computer Networks

 Resource sharing–All the programs, data and equipment available to

everyone on the network regardless of the physical location of the
resources and the users.
 High reliability–High reliability can be achieved by having alternated
source of supply. The process of Multiple CPU means if one goes down
the other can take over it work.
 Saving money - Small computers have much better price/performance
ratio than large ones. A small personal computer can achieve almost a
same performance as that of a larger mainframe computer.
 Scalability - Ability to increase system performance gradually as the
workload grows just by adding more processors.
 Communication medium–It provide powerful communication
medium, widely spreaded people e.g. human to human communication.

Application of Computer Network

 Access to remote Database (information) - (interaction between a

person and a remote database) - financial institutions, home shopping,
newspapers, digital library, potential replacement of printed books by
notebook computers, access to information systems (WWW).
 Person-to-person communication - email, videoconference,
newsgroups.

 Interactive entertainment - video on demand, interactive films and

games.
Network Objective or Advantages of Networks

 To provide sharing of resources.

 To provide Inter process Communication.
 To provide Reliability (backup, recovery)
 To manage centralized control and management.
 To Provide compatibility between dissimilar equipment and software.
 Maximum performance at minimum cost.

Uses of Computer Networks

Network Hardware

Transmission Technology

Classification of networks according to transmission technology are

 Broadcast networks.
 Point-to-point networks.
Broadcast networks are networks with single communication channel
shared by all the machines. Short messages (packets) sent by any machine
are received by all others. An address field within the packet specifies for
whom it is intended.
Broadcasting is a mode of operation in which a packet is sent to every
machine using a special code in the address field.

Multicasting is sending a packet to a subset of the machines.

Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual

pairs of machines. In these types of networks:
  A packet on its way from the source to the destination may go through
intermediate machines.
 In general, multiple routes are possible - routing algorithms are
necessary.
Unicasting– point to point transmission with one sender and one receiver.

Type of Networks
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
4. PAN (Personal Area Network)

Local Area Networks:

LANs are privately-owned, within a single building or campus, of up to

a few kilometers in size.
They are distinguished from other kind of networks by three
characteristics:
• size,
• transmission technology,
• topology.

LANs are restricted in size - the worst-case transmission time is known

in advance, it makes possible to use certain kinds of design.
LANs transmission technology often consists of a single cable to which
all machines are attached. Traditional LANs run at speed of 10 to 100 Mbps.
Newer LANs may operate at higher speeds.

Important characteristics of LAN are

1. Diameter not more than few kilometer.
2. Complete owner ship by a single organization.
3. Total data rate is several Mbps.
 Other characteristics are
 Flexible
 Reliable
 Resource Sharing (Hardware and Software)
 Economic
 Centralized distribution
 High speed
 Low delay
 Limited number of Station
 Centralized Control
 Easy access to other LAN or WAN
 Security

Metropolitan Area Networks:

Metropolitan area network (MAN) is basically a bigger version of a LAN
and normally uses similar technology. It might cover a group of nearby
corporate offices or a city and might be either private or public.
The main reason for even distinguishing MANs as a special category is
that a standard has been adopted for them. It is called DQDB (Distributed
Queue Dual Bus).

Wide Area Networks:

A wide area network (WAN):
 spans a large geographical area.
WAN contains hosts (or end-systems) intended for running user
programs.
The hosts are connected by a communication subnet. The job of subnet
is used to carries messages from one host to another host. The subnet usually
consists of two different components
1. Transmission lines (circuits, channels, or trunks) and
2. Switching elements.
 Transmission lines are used to transfer only one bit at a time.
The switching elements are specialized computers used to connect
two or more transmission lines. It is also called IMPs (Interface Message
Processor) or router. The purpose of router is used to select the best path from
source to destination.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual

person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of
personal use is known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea
of the Personal Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area
network are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

Network Software
Network Architecture
 To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized
as a series of layers or levels,
 Each one built upon the one below it.
 The actual structure of layers differs from network to network.
 The number of layer, the name of layer, the content of layer and
function of layer are differ from one network to other network.
 The purpose of each layer is offer certain services to higher layer.
 Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on
another machine. The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as layer n protocol.

 Entities compressing the corresponding layer on different

machine is called Peer processor.
 Peer may be hardware or person or even human being.
 In reality no data’s are directly transfer from layers n on one
machine to layer n on other machine. Each layer passes data and
control information to the layer immediately (directly) below it
until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer1 there is a physical
medium through which actual communication occurs.
 Physical communication is shown by the solid line and the virtual
communication represent by doted lines.
 There is an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. The
interface defines which primitive operations and services the
lower layer offers to the upper one.
 The primitive operations are request, indication, response and
Conformation.
  A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer,
is called a protocol stack.
 Each layer perform a specific collection of well defined function
and minimizing the amount of information must be passed
between layers.
 Any layers can changing the protocol without affecting the other
layers.
 A set of layers , interface and protocols is called Network
architecture.

Design Issues for the Layers

The more important ones are:
1. Connection Management
Each layer must have a mechanism for connection
establishment. Since a network has many computers with multiple
processes, a mean is need to specify a source and a specific destination.
2. Connection Termination
When a connection across the network is no longer needed,
terminate them.
3. Addressing Techniques
Large no of destination is present so, some form of addressing
technique is used to represent source and destination address.
4. Data Transfer Mode
Data can travel in any one of the three modes,
i. Simplex Communication – Data travels only in one
direction (One way communication)
ii. Half Duplex Communication – Data travels in both
directions but not simultaneously.
iii. Full Duplex Communication – Data travels in both sides
Simultaneously (Two-way Communication)
 5. Error Control
Error control is an important issue because physical
communication circuits are not perfect. So error detecting and error
correction codes are needed.

6. Packet Sequencing
A data block is divided into number of fragments. Protocol
must provide some way of sequencing these packets to prevent
any possible loss.
Maintenance of sequence of information transferred is
important.
7. Synchronization- Flow Control
The problem of speed mismatch between faster sender and slower
receiver must be taken care.
Fast sender not swapped by the slow receiver. Some kind of
feedback from the receiver to the sender either directly or indirectly.
Due to varying speeds between different machines, some method
of speed compatibility among these is essential to prevent the swapping
of data over a slow receiver.
8. Routing Information
When there are multiple path existing between source and
destination a route must be taken into account.
Message disassembling, transmitting and assembling details are
considered in case of long message transfer.

The OSI Reference Model:

The OSI model is based on a proposal develop by ISO as a first step
toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various
layers. The model is called ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference
Model. Open system means a system is always open for communication with
other systems. The OSI model has 7 layers.

The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as
follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is
needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow
across the interfaces.
 5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions
need not be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity, and
small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.

The Physical Layer:

The main task of the physical layer is to transmit raw bits over a
communication channel.
Typical questions here are:
 how many volts should be used to represent 1bit and 0 bit,
 how many microseconds a bit lost,
 If one side 1 bit, the other side receive the same bit , not a 0 bit.
 whether the transmission may proceed simultaneously in both
directions,
 how the initial connection is established and how it is turn down,
 how many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used
for.
 The design issues deal with mechanical, electrical, and procedural
interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below the
physical layer.

The user of the physical layer may be sure that the given stream of bits
was encoded and transmitted. He cannot be sure that the data came to the
destination without error. This issue is solved in higher layers.

The Data Link Layer:

The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility
and transform it into a line that appears free of undetected transmission
errors to the network layer.
To accomplish this, the sender breaks the input data into data frames
(typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes), transmits the frames
sequentially, and processes the acknowledgment frames sent back by the
receiver.
The issues that the layer has to solve:
• to create and to recognize frame boundaries - typically by attaching
special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame,
• to solve the problem caused by damaged, lost or duplicate frames
(the data link layer may offer several different service classes to the
network layer, each with different quality and price),
• to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data,
• if the line is bi-directional, the acknowledgment frames compete for
the use of the line with data frames.
 Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how
to control access to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link
layer (medium access sublayer) deals with the problem. The user of the data
link layer may be sure that his data were delivered without errors to the
neighbor node. However, the layer is able to deliver the data just to the
neighbor node.
The Network Layer:
The main task of the network layer is to determine how data can be
delivered from source to destination. That is, the network layer is concerned
with controlling the operation of the subnet.
The important design issues is how the packets are routed from source
to destination, a routing should be based on static table.
The issues that the layer has to solve:
•to implement the routing mechanism,
•to control congestions,
•to allow interconnection of heterogeneous networks
Too many packets are presented in the network at the same time
collision will occur.
The address used to the second network may be differ from first
network.
The second one may not accept the packet because it is too large and protocol
may be differ. To overcome this problem heterogeneous networks is
introduced.

In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network

layer is often thin or even nonexistent. The user of the network layer may be
sure that his packet was delivered to the given destination. However, the
delivery of the packets needs not to be in the order in which they were
transmitted.

The Transport Layer:

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the
session layer, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass them to the
network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
Transport layer determine what type of service to provide the session
layer and ultimate to user of the network.
The most popular type of transport connection is error free point to
point.
In the transport layer the transport header must contain the address of
the destination machine.
All this must be done in a way that isolates the upper layers from the
inevitable changes in the hardware technology.
 The issues that the transport layer has to solve:
 to realize a transport connection by several network connections
if the session layer requires a high throughput or multiplex
several transport connections onto the same network connection
if network connections are expensive,
 to provide different type of services for the session layer,
 to implement a kind of flow control.

The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, from source to

destination. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a
conversation with a similar program on the destination machine. In lower
layers, the protocols are between each machine and its immediate neighbors.
The user of the transport layer may be sure that his message will be delivered
to the destination regardless of the state of the network. He need not worry
about the technical features of the network.

The Session Layer:

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them. A session allows ordinary data transport, as does the
transport layer, but it also provides enhanced services useful in some
applications.

Some of these services are:

• Dialog control - session can allow traffic to go in both directions at

the same time, or in only one direction at a time. If traffic can go only in one
way at a time, the session layer can help to keep track of whose turn it is.
• Token management - for some protocols it is essential that both sides
do not attempt the same operation at the same time. The session layer
provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the side holding the token may
perform the critical action.
• Synchronization - by inserting checkpoints into the data stream the
layer eliminates problems with potential crashes at long operations. After a
crash, only the data transferred after the last checkpoint have to be repeated.
The user of the session layer is in similar position as the user of the
transport layer but having larger possibilities.

The Presentation Layer:

The presentation layer perform certain functions that are requested

sufficiently often to warrant finding a general solution for them, rather than
letting each user solve the problem.
 This layer is, unlike all the lower layers, concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information transmitted.
A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a
standard agreed upon way.
Different computers may use different ways of internal coding of
characters or numbers. In order to make it possible for computers with
different representations to communicate, the data structures to be
exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding
to be used "on the wire".
The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and
converts from the representation used inside the computer to the network
standard representation and back.

OSI Reference Model

The Application Layer:

The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly

needed.
For example, there are hundreds of incompatible terminal types in the
world. If they have to be used for a work with a full screen editor, many
problems arise from their incompatibility.
One way to solve this problem is to define network virtual terminal and
write editor for this terminal. To handle each terminal type, a piece of software
must be written to map the functions of the network virtual terminal onto the
real terminal.
All the virtual terminal software is in the application layer.
 Another application layer function is file transfer. It must handle
different incompatibilities between file systems on different computers.
Further facilities of the application layer are electronic mail, remote job
entry, directory lookup and others.

TCP/IP model
 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first
four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in
TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and
each of them provides specific functionality.
Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data
Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
frame relay.

Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from
any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route
they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant

part of the entire TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known

as IP addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher
layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which
the data is to be transmitted.
 Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data
from the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data
is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into message
known as IP datagram.
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the
IP datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum
Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the
MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units
so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be
done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the
fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such
as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and
destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent
indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram
through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol

 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical
address from the IP address.
 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:

 ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical

address of the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the
network.
 ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept
the ARP request and process the request, but only recipient
recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address
in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical
address both to its cache memory and to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send
notifications regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
 A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its
destination. If a router is unable to route the data because of
 some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is
on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used
to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the
destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the
destination device is responding or not.
 The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the
problems, not correct them. The responsibility of the
correction lies with the sender.
 ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the
intermediate routers because the IP datagram carries the
addresses of the source and destination but not of the router
that it is passed to.

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol
and Transmission control protocol.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

 It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of

transmission.
 It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not
specify the error.
 User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been
damaged.
 UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of
the application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the
address of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user
datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error
detection.
 UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 It provides a full transport layer services to applications.
 It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and
it is active for the duration of the transmission.
 TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits
the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must
be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
 At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller
units known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence
number which is required for reordering the frames to form an
original message.
 At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders
them based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of
representation.
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with
another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application
cannot be placed inside the application layer except those who interact
with the communication system. For example: text editor cannot be
considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol
to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows
us to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in
the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer
protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP
protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer
protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail
address.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to
identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people
prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that
maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
  TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a
way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote
system.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer

Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Model

OSI TCP

1. It has 7 layer. It has 5 layer

2. OSI model has separate TCP/IP does not have a separate

Presentation and session Presentation and session layer.
layer.
3. The network layer of OSI The network layer of TCP/IP model
model provide both provide Connection less service.
Connection oriented and
Connection less service.
4. This model is used for This model is used for Internet
Telecommunication purpose

5. In OSI model transport TCP/IP model transport layer does

layer guarantee to deliver not guarantee to deliver the packet
the packet, less reliable. but still TCP/IP model are reliable.

6. OSI model defines In TCP/IP model Services,

Services, Interfaces and Interfaces and Protocols are not
Protocols are very clearly clearly defined and it is also
and this protocol are
protocol dependent.
independent.

Example Networks: Internet, ATM, Ethernet and Wireless LANs

The Internet

Introduction to the Internet

The Internet is not a single network but a vast global collection of

interconnected networks that follow common communication rules called
protocols. These networks cooperate voluntarily; no central authority
controls the entire Internet. Its evolution was not planned—it grew through
research, experimentation, and cooperation among universities,
governments, and industry. For historical background, notable works such as
John Naughton’s A Brief History of the Future document its development.
The Beginning: ARPANET

The Internet began with the ARPANET, a research project funded by the
U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in the late 1950s. During the Cold War,
DoD required a communication system that could survive nuclear attacks.
The existing telephone network was vulnerable because of its centralized,
hierarchical structure, where destroying a few major switching centers could
collapse national communication.

Diagram: Telephone Network (Vulnerable Structure)

[Toll Office]

/ \

[Local] [Local]

/ \

[Users] [Users]

Paul Baran’s Distributed Concept

To solve this vulnerability, RAND researcher Paul Baran proposed a

distributed packet- switched network, where messages were broken into
packets and routed independently across many redundant paths. His design
supported survivability and self-healing.

Diagram: Baran’s Distributed Network

[Node]--[Node]--[Node]

\ |
/
[Node]-
-[Node]

AT&T rejected Baran’s idea, saying it was impossible. Several years later,
ARPA revisited networking and recognized the importance of packet
switching.

Creation of ARPA and the Birth of Packet Switching

After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik (1957), the U.S. formed ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency) to support advanced scientific
research. By 1967, ARPA focused on networking. Larry Roberts from ARPA
proposed a packet-switched network.

At the same time, Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory

(U.K.) independently developed and demonstrated similar packet-switching
ideas, proving this technology was feasible.

ARPANET Design and Implementation

ARPA selected BBN Corporation to build the network. They created small
routers called IMPs (Interface Message Processors) using Honeywell
minicomputers and 56 kbps leased telephone lines.

Diagram: IMP–Host Connection

[HOST]---[IMP]===lines=== [IMP]---[HOST]

Each host sent large messages to its IMP, which divided them into
smaller packets (up to 1008 bits). Packets traveled independently
through a datagram network. This made ARPANET the first electronic
packet-switching network.

In December 1969, ARPANET went live with 4 nodes:

 UCLA

 UCSB

 SRI (Stanford Research Institute)

 University of Utah
The network rapidly expanded across the U.S. in the early 1970s.

Interconnecting Networks: Satellites and Radio

ARPA also funded satellite networks and packet radio networks. A

famous demonstration showed a truck in California using packet radio to
send messages through ARPANET to London via satellite.

This experiment revealed that existing protocols were inadequate for

multiple interconnected networks.

This led to the development

of TCP/IP.
Invention of TCP/IP

In 1974, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn introduced TCP/IP, a protocol

suite designed to allow different networks to interconnect seamlessly—this is
the foundation of today’s Internet.
TCP/IP was refined and distributed widely through Berkeley UNIX
(BSD) with the help of BBN and Berkeley researchers, who also created the
socket API, a standard method to write network programs.
As a result, universities could easily connect local networks (LANs) to
ARPANET using TCP/IP, causing massive growth.
DNS: Domain Name System

As hosts increased, remembering numeric IP addresses became impractical.

The Domain Name System (DNS) was introduced to map hostnames (e.g.,
[Link]) to IP addresses. DNS later evolved into a distributed database
used for various Internet services.

NSFNET: Opening the Internet to Universities

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the National Science Foundation (NSF)
created NSFNET, a network connecting supercomputer centers across the
U.S. It used TCP/IP from the beginning and served thousands of universities
and research labs via regional networks.
This dramatically expanded global connectivity.
Commercialization and NAPs
As traffic increased, NSF upgraded the backbone and later encouraged
commercialization. They established Network Access Points (NAPs) to allow
different network operators to interconnect and compete. This ended
government-run backbones and shifted the Internet to private companies and
ISPs.
European networks (EuropaNET, EBONE) were developed similarly.

Explosion of Internet Usage

After TCP/IP became mandatory in 1983 and NSFNET linked to

ARPANET, worldwide growth became exponential. Many new regional,
national, and international networks joined. By the late 1980s and 1990s,
millions of users had access.
Traditional Applications of the Internet

Before the 1990s, four main applications dominated:

1. Email – the most widely used communication tool

 2. News (Usenet) – topic-based discussion groups
3. Remote Login – telnet, ssh to access remote computers
4. File Transfer (FTP) – copying files between hosts
The World Wide Web (WWW)

The major breakthrough came with the invention of the World Wide Web by
Tim Berners- Lee (CERN). The first graphical browser, Mosaic, made the Web
popular and easy to use. Web pages contained text, images, links, audio, and
video, which created an accessible hyperlinked system.
This brought non-technical users online and caused rapid global
adoption.

ISPs (Internet Service Providers)

During the 1990s, ISPs enabled millions of home users to connect to the
Internet through dial- up or broadband. The Internet evolved from a research
tool into a public utility, similar to the telephone system.
Summary of Internet Architecture

The modern Internet involves:

 Clients connecting via modem or broadband

 ISPs operating regional networks
 Major companies running high-speed backbone networks
 NAPs (Network Access Points) where top-level backbones
interconnect
 ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a high-speed, connection-

oriented networking technology developed in the early 1990s. Its name
comes from the fact that traditional telephone networks used synchronous
transmission (strictly clock-based), whereas ATM uses asynchronous
transmission. ATM was promoted as a universal technology capable of
integrating voice, data, video, cable TV, and multimedia services into a
single network. Although early expectations were exaggerated, ATM did
achieve significant success— particularly within the telephone backbone
infrastructure, where it is still used to transport large volumes of IP packets
behind the scenes. It avoided the political and implementation failures
associated with OSI, but it also arrived at a time when the Internet was rapidly
expanding, reducing ATM’s visibility to ordinary users.
ATM Virtual Circuits

ATM is connection-oriented, meaning communication begins by establishing

a virtual circuit (VC). A setup packet is first sent through the network. As it
travels, each ATM switch (router) along the path updates its internal tables
and reserves the required resources for that connection. Virtual circuits
behave like dedicated telephone circuits, although they are implemented
entirely in software and tables. ATM supports both Switched Virtual Circuits
(SVCs)— temporary connections—and Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs),
which act like leased lines connecting distant sites.
Diagram: ATM Virtual Circuit

Sender ── VCID=12 ──> [ATM Switch] ── VCID=45 ──> Receiver

Each switch may assign a different Virtual Circuit Identifier (VCI), but
the path remains fixed for the duration of the connection.

ATM Cells and Cell Switching

Once a connection is established, all data is broken into very small, fixed-size
packets called cells. Each ATM cell is exactly 53 bytes: a 5-byte header and
48-byte payload. The header includes the connection identifier (VCI),
enabling the network to forward each cell along the correct virtual circuit. The
use of fixed-size cells allows extremely fast hardware-based switching, as
switches do not need to process variable-length frames. This design makes
ATM suitable for carrying multimedia traffic, where uniform, short packets
simplify timing guarantees.
Diagram: ATM Cell Format

+ + +

| 5-byte Header | 48-byte Payload |

 + + +

ATM also supports multicasting, since hardware switches can duplicate a

single cell onto multiple output lines—useful for video broadcasts. A major
advantage of small cells is that they occupy the transmission line for very short
durations, helping ATM meet strict Quality of Service (QoS) requirements.
All cells in a connection follow the same route, ensuring in-order delivery.
However, delivery is not guaranteed—cells may be lost, and higher layers
must handle recovery. This makes ATM slightly more reliable in ordering
compared to IP, which may deliver packets both lost and out of order.
ATM Network Speeds

ATM networks are built like conventional WANs, using switches and high-
speed transmission lines. The most common data rates are:
 155 Mbps

 622 Mbps
The 155.52 Mbps rate matches the bandwidth required for early high-
definition television and aligns with SONET (Synchronous Optical Network)
standards. The 622 Mbps rate provides four 155-Mbps channels aggregated
into one.

ATM Reference Model

ATM uses its own three-layer reference model, distinct from both OSI
and TCP/IP. The layers are:

1. Physical Layer
2. ATM Layer
3. ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
These are combined with three planes—user plane, control plane, and
management plane— making the model conceptually three-dimensional.
Diagram: ATM Reference Model (Simplified)

+ + < User applications

| Higher Layers |

+ +

| ATM Adaptation Layer | (AAL)

 + +
| ATM Layer |
+ +
| Physical |
Layer
+ +

Physical Layer Sublayers

The physical layer has two sublayers:

1. PMD (Physical Medium Dependent) – interfaces with the

actual cable, handles bit movement and timing.
2. TC (Transmission Convergence) – converts raw bit streams
into properly framed ATM cells and vice versa.
In ATM, framing is placed in the physical layer, unlike OSI where it belongs
to the data link layer.

ATM Layer

The ATM layer is central to ATM’s functioning. It defines the cell structure,
interprets header fields, manages cell generation, routing, congestion control,
and the setup and teardown of virtual circuits. It corresponds roughly to a
combination of the OSI data link and network layers, but it is not divided
into sublayers.
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

The AAL allows applications to send larger packets than 48 bytes. It has two
sublayers:

1. SAR (Segmentation and Reassembly) – splits large packets into

cells and reassembles them at the receiver.
2. CS (Convergence Sublayer) – provides services tailored to
different applications: file transfer, video streaming, real-time
data, etc.
Different AAL types were created to support different QoS needs (e.g., AAL1
for constant bit rate services like voice, AAL5 for data).
Ethernet

Origin of Local Area Networks (LANs)

Both Internet and ATM were mainly designed for wide-area networks
(WANs). However, organizations such as universities and companies needed
a way to connect many computers within a small geographic area. This need
led to the development of the Local Area Network (LAN). The most influential
and widely used LAN technology is Ethernet.

ALOHA System – The Beginning

The story of Ethernet begins in Hawaii during the early 1970s. Because
Hawaii’s islands were far apart and lacked a good telephone system,
researcher Norman Abramson created a wireless network called ALOHA
(later ALOHANET). Every user had a radio with two channels—upstream (to
the central computer) and downstream (from the central computer).
Whenever a user sent a packet, it was transmitted on the upstream channel.
If no one else was transmitting, the packet was successfully delivered;
otherwise, the packet collided with others and the user retried later. ALOHA
worked reasonably well when traffic was low but suffered heavy collisions
when too many users transmitted at once.
How ALOHA Worked (Simple Diagram)

User Terminal → Radio → Upstream Channel → Central Computer

↑ ↓

Downstream Channel ←–––––––––––

Birth of Ethernet

Inspired by ALOHA, Bob Metcalfe, while completing his Ph.D., studied

Abramson's work and later joined Xerox PARC. There, researchers had
developed early personal computers, but they were isolated. Along with David
Boggs, Metcalfe designed the first LAN in 1976. They named it Ethernet,
inspired by the old scientific theory of "luminiferous ether," thought to carry
light waves.
Architecture of Original Ethernet

The first Ethernet used a thick coaxial cable up to 2.5 km long.

Multiple computers were attached through transceivers. Since all machines
shared the same cable, it was called a multidrop cable. The system operated
at 2.94 Mbps. Before any computer transmitted, it checked (or “listened”)
whether the cable was free—this technique is called carrier sensing.
Ethernet Architecture (ASCII Diagram)

Thick Coaxial Multidrop Ethernet Cable

Collision Detection and Backoff

Even though stations listened before transmitting, collisions could still

occur—for example, when two machines waited and then transmitted at the
same moment. To handle this, Ethernet used CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection). Each computer listened while
transmitting. If a collision was detected, it sent a jamming signal to notify
others, stopped transmitting, and waited for a random time before retrying.
After multiple collisions, the waiting time doubled (called binary exponential
backoff). This method greatly improved efficiency compared to ALOHA.
Standardization of Ethernet

Ethernet’s success led DEC, Intel, and Xerox to publish the DIX Ethernet
standard in 1978 for 10 Mbps Ethernet. This later became the IEEE 802.3
standard in 1983. Despite inventing Ethernet, Xerox failed to commercialize
it effectively. Metcalfe created 3Com, which went on to sell millions of
Ethernet adapters.

Growth of Ethernet

Ethernet continued evolving with faster versions—100 Mbps (Fast

Ethernet), 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet), 10 Gbps, and beyond. Cable
types improved (twisted pair, fiber optics), and Ethernet switching
replaced the original shared-cable system.

Competing LAN Standards

IEEE standardized multiple LAN technologies:

Standard Technology Notes

802.3 Ethernet Most successful; uses CSMA/CD

802.4 Token Bus Promoted by General Motors; now obsolete

 802.5 Token Ring Developed by IBM; still used only in IBM setups

Token bus and token ring used a token-passing method—only the

device holding the token could transmit, avoiding collisions. Despite
these designs, Ethernet won the LAN standards war because it was
simpler, cheaper, and more efficient.

Wireless LANs: 802.11

1. Introduction to Wireless LANs

When notebook computers became popular, users imagined entering

any office and connecting to the Internet automatically without cables. To
achieve this, companies began developing wireless LAN technologies using
short-range radio transmitters and receivers. However, these early wireless
systems were incompatible with each other. A laptop with one brand of
wireless card could not communicate with a base station of another brand.
This lack of standardization led to confusion in the market, and the need for
a universal wireless LAN standard became clear.
The IEEE committee responsible for wired LAN standards (such as Ethernet)
was appointed to create a wireless LAN standard. This new standard was
named IEEE 802.11, now commonly known as Wi-Fi. Although people use the
slang name Wi-Fi, it is technically correct to refer to it as 802.11.
2. Operating Modes of 802.11

The 802.11 standard had to operate in

two different modes:

(1) Mode with a Base Station (Infrastructure Mode)

A central Access Point (AP) acts as the controller. All devices

communicate through this AP.

(2) Mode without a Base Station (Ad Hoc Mode)

Devices communicate directly with each other without an access point.

 3. Challenges in Designing 802.11

Designing a wireless LAN was far more complex than designing a wired LAN.
Several challenges had to be addressed:
a) Choice of Frequency Band

The standard needed a globally available radio frequency band that could be
used without licensing.
b) Limited Radio Range
Wireless signals have a finite range. A device may hear some computers but
not others. This creates communication problems.
Consider the scenario in Fig. 1-36 below: A can reach B, B can reach both A
and C, but C cannot hear A. Even if C listens before transmitting and does
not hear A, its transmission can still collide at B.
Diagram for Fig. 1-36: Range Problem in Wireless LANs

A -----> B -----> C
A can
reach B C
can reach
B

A cannot reach C (out of radio range)

This is known as the hidden terminal problem, and 802.11 needed new
methods to solve this since traditional Ethernet "listen before transmit"
(CSMA/CD) does not work reliably.

c) Multipath Fading

Radio signals can reflect off walls, furniture, or other objects. As a result, the
receiver may get the same signal multiple times along different paths,
causing interference. This phenomenon is called multipath fading, and
wireless LANs must use techniques to correct errors caused by it.
d) Mobility-Unaware Software

Many applications assume computers stay in a single place. For example, word
processors may store a fixed list of printers. When the laptop is moved to a
new environment, that list becomes invalid. Wireless LANs needed
mechanisms to handle software behavior in a mobile environment.
e) Handoff Between Cells
If a mobile device moves from one access point’s coverage area to another,
the connection must be transferred smoothly. This is similar to cellular
handoff. Ethernet never had to worry about this, so new approaches had to be
designed.
In a fully developed 802.11 network, many access points are connected
to a wired Ethernet backbone, forming multiple wireless cells.
Diagram for Fig. 1-37: Multicell 802.11 Network
Each AP forms its own wireless cell:
 Cell 1: AP1
covering area A
Cell 2: AP2
covering area B
Cell 3: AP3
covering area C

The portal is the device that connects the wireless network to the outside
Ethernet network. From the outside world, the entire system looks like one
single Ethernet network.
4. Evolution of 802.11 Standards

The first version of the 802.11 standard was released in 1997,

supporting 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps

data rates. But users quickly demanded higher speeds, leading to new
versions.

802.11a (1999)

 Uses a wider frequency band

 Supports up to 54 Mbps
 Higher speed but less range than b
802.11b (1999)

 Uses same 2.4 GHz band as original 802.11

 Improved modulation technique for 11 Mbps
 Became extremely popular because 11 Mbps exceeded the
speed of early wired Ethernet (10 Mbps)
802.11g

 Uses the modulation technique of 802.11a

 Uses the frequency band of 802.11b (2.4 GHz)
 Provides up to 54 Mbps
This made 802.11g both fast and backward compatible, helping it
become widely adopted.
 5. Impact of
802.11

The adoption of 802.11 has caused a major revolution in the way people
access the Internet. Wireless hotspots are now commonly found in:
 Airports
 Train stations
 Hotels
 Shopping malls
 Universities
 Cafes and restaurants
802.11 has made the Internet mobile, similar to how notebook computers
made computing mobile. Today, Wi-Fi is an essential part of modern
communication.

Physical Layer –
Communication The Theoretical Basis for Data
Communication

Data communication relies on the idea that information can be sent across a
medium—such as a copper wire or fiber cable—by changing a physical
property like voltage, current, or light intensity. These changes over time can
be represented mathematically as a function f(t). Once a signal is modeled as
a function, many powerful mathematical tools can be used to analyze how it
behaves, how it travels through a transmission medium, and how it gets
distorted. One of the most important tools for studying signals is Fourier
analysis, which breaks a signal into simple sinusoidal waves.
1. Fourier
Analysis

In the early 1800s, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier

discovered that any periodic signal, no matter how complex, can be
expressed as a sum of simple sine and cosine waves. A periodic function g(t)
with period T can be written as a Fourier series, consisting of a constant term
plus many harmonics (sin and cos components). The fundamental frequency
is f = 1/T, and the amplitudes of each harmonic are given by the coefficients
aₙ (sine terms) and bₙ (cosine terms). If these coefficients are known, the
entire signal can be reconstructed exactly by adding all the harmonics. For
real data signals—which always have finite duration—we assume the pattern
repeats forever, making them suitable for Fourier analysis. The coefficients
aₙ , bₙ , and c can be found by multiplying the signal with sinusoids or cosines
and integrating over one period. Thus, Fourier analysis allows us to convert
a time-domain signal into a frequency-domain representation that shows
which frequencies are present in the signal and how strong they are.
2. Bandwidth-Limited Signals

Fourier analysis becomes important in communication because real

channels cannot transmit all frequencies equally well. To understand this,
consider an example: sending the 8-bit ASCII character 'b', represented as the
binary pattern 01100010. When transmitted, the computer outputs a
square-wave voltage pattern. The Fourier series of this digital signal contains
a combination of multiple harmonics. Each harmonic represents energy at a
different frequency. However, no real transmission medium delivers all these
frequencies without distortion. Every channel filters signals, usually passing
low frequencies well and weakening (attenuating) higher frequencies. The
range of frequencies that pass through with little attenuation is called the
bandwidth. For example, telephone lines may physically support 1 MHz, but
phone companies limit each user to around 3100 Hz to conserve resources.
When a channel allows only a few low-frequency harmonics, the
reconstructed signal begins to lose its sharp edges. With only the first
harmonic (fundamental frequency), the signal resembles a smooth sine wave
instead of a square wave. As more harmonics are included, the signal becomes
closer to the original binary waveform. This means that if the bandwidth is
too small, digital signals become badly distorted, making it difficult for the
receiver to distinguish between 0s and 1s. As shown in textbook figures, low-
bandwidth channels only allow a crude approximation of the original signal,
causing errors. For example, sending 9600 bps over a standard voice-grade
line (∼3000 Hz bandwidth) results in a distorted signal resembling only the
first few Fourier approximations. Even a perfectly noise-free channel cannot
transmit arbitrarily high bit rates if bandwidth is limited. To overcome this,
engineers use advanced modulation methods with multiple voltage levels to
pack more bits into each symbol.
3. The Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Two major theoretical limits define how much data a channel can carry:
the Nyquist limit and the Shannon limit.

Nyquist Limit (Noiseless Channels)

In 1924, Henry Nyquist showed that if a channel has bandwidth H Hz,

then no more than 2H samples per second are needed to reconstruct any
signal that passes through a low-pass filter of that bandwidth. If a channel
uses V discrete signal levels, the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel
is:
Maximum data rate = 2H log₂(V) bits/sec

For example, a perfect 3000 Hz channel using binary signals (V = 2)

cannot exceed 6000 bps. Using more levels increases the capacity, but only if
the receiver can reliably distinguish them.
Shannon Limit (Noisy Channels)

Real channels always contain thermal noise resulting from molecular

motion. Claude Shannon extended Nyquist’s work in 1948 by developing a
formula for noisy channels. The capacity of a channel depends on both
bandwidth (H) and the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). Instead of raw S/N,
engineers often express it in decibels (dB) using:

S/N (dB) = 10 log₁₀ (S/N)

Typical telephone lines have S/N around 30 dB. Shannon proved that
the absolute upper limit

on data rate is:

Maximum data rate = H log₂(1 + S/N) bits/sec

For example, a 3000 Hz channel with 30 dB S/N cannot exceed about

30,000 bps, no matter what encoding is used. No system can surpass the
Shannon limit; claims to the contrary are as impossible as perpetual motion
machines. Practical systems usually achieve far less than the Shannon
capacity but use clever modulation to approach it.

The Physical Layer

The Theoretical Basis for Data Communication

Information is transmitted on wires by varying some physical property

such as voltage or current. Let f(t) be a function of time representing the value
of this voltage or current modeling the behavior of the signal.

Fourier Analysis

Any reasonable behaved periodic function, g(t), can be expressed in the

form of Fourier series .

where f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency and an and bn are the sine and
cosine amplitudes of the n-th harmonics. The values of c, an, and bn can be
expressed by the following equations:
 A data signal that has a finite duration can be handled as a periodical
function imagining that it repeats the entire pattern over and over.
Classification of Transmission Media:

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are

transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types of Guided media:

Twisted pair:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted

with each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other
transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a
light weight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5
KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a

regular spiral pattern. The degree of reduction in noise interference is
determined by the number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns
per foot decreases noise interference.
Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following

are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed

data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of

attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding

the wire that allows the higher transmission rate.
 Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very
low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example,
TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel
to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made
up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the
outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single

signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.

Advantages of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
 o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Base Band Broad Band

It is a 50 Ohm Coaxial cable used It is used for Analog transmission
for digital transmission
Mostly it is used in LAN Mostly it is used in television
cable
It transmit single signal at a time It transmit Several simultaneous
with high speed signal using different frequencies
It need amplification after every It covers large area compared
100 feet with base band coaxial cable

Fibre Optic cable

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that
are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic

known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at
 the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the
light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength,
absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as

compared copper.
o Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared to copper
cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer
distance as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper
cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause
obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.

Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it
can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.