MODULE 4: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Our target learning outcomes for this module are: a) distinguish between inductive and
deductive reasoning, b) apply logical reasoning to solve logic and KenKen puzzles; c) solve
word problems using Polya’s methods effectively.
Solve the VIRAL MATH PROBLEM − 6 ÷ 2(1 + 2) =
What is your answer to this problem? Why? Justify your answer.
UNIT 1: REASONING
A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning.
It is the process of forming or reaching a conclusion by examining specific examples.
Note that the conclusion that is formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Example 1: Inductive reasoning to predict a number. Given the sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15,
__. What is the next number?
Solution
The difference between the first two numbers is 2. The second and third numbers differ
by 3; the third and fourth numbers differ by 4. It appears that the difference between any
two consecutive numbers is always one greater than the preceding difference. Since 10 and
15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 greater than 15. Hence, the
next number is 21.
Example 2: Inductive reasoning to make a conjecture: Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8; add 6 to the product; divide the sum by 2; and,
subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution
Using any number (an integer, i.e.) and following the outlined procedure or steps, we
conjecture that the given procedure will produce a resulting number that is four times the
original number.
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Counterexamples. It is one case found for which a statement is not true. It is used to
verify if a statement is a false statement.
Example 3: Statement: For all x, x2 > x.
Solution
Consider x = 1. For x = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, a
counterexample is found. Thus, the statement “for all x, x2> x” is a false statement.
Example 4: Statement: For all x, x/x = 1.
Solution
Consider x = 0. For x = 0, 0/0 ≠ 1; 0/0 is undefined. Hence, the statement “for all x,
x/x = 1” is a false statement.
Deductive reasoning
It is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
Example 5: Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum
by 2, and subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2:
Subtract 3 from the quotient: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
Starting with n and performing the procedure, we ended with 4n. The
procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
Remember! Inductive: from specific to general.
Deductive: from general to specific.
B. Logic and KenKen Puzzles
Video viewing and doing problem solving:
Can you solve Einstein’s Riddle? [Link]
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Logic puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that is used to
display given information in a visual manner.
Example 6: Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different
occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the
occupation of each neighbor.
Solution
Clues:
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker and the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker leaves next door to Brian.
Procedure:
1. From clue 1, Maria is not the banker nor the dentist. In the following chart, we write ×1
under the Banker and Dentist column for Maria, to indicate the possibility is eliminated
because of clue 1.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah
Brian
2. From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Also, Sarah is the last to get home from work and from
clue 1, the banker is not the last to get home from work. Hence, Sarah is also not the
banker. We write ×2 under the editor and banker column for Sarah.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2
Brian
3. From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist for she and the dentist leave for work at the same
time. We write ×3 under the Dentist column for Sarah in the following chart and we
conclude that Sarah is the Chef. Correspondingly, we get to see that since Sarah is the
Chef, we place an ×3 mark under the Chef column for Maria and conclude that she is
the Editor. Now, we also place an ×3 mark under the columns Chef and Editor for Sean
and Brian.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
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Sean ×3 ×3
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×3
4. From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. We place an ×4 mark under the Banker column for
Brian. Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Banker column, then Sean must be the Banker.
Sean could not be the Dentist so we place an ×4 mark for Sean under the Dentist column.
Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Dentist column, Brian must be the Dentist and we
place a check mark in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean ×3 ×3 ×4
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×4 ×3
From the given clues (and using deductive reasoning), Sean is the banker, Maria is
the editor, Sarah is the Chef, and Brian is the dentist.
Kenken puzzles
Watch the video: KenKen 4x4 Introduction and Strategy@
[Link]
KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese
mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun "ken" has "knowledge" and
"awareness" as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness
squared.
Rules for Solving KenKen Puzzles
1. For an n x n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ...
,n. Thus, in a 3x3 puzzle, use the numbers 1 to 3. In a 4x4 puzzle, use the numbers 1
to 4. In a 5x5 puzzle, use the numbers 1 to 5, and so on.
2. Do not repeat a number in any row or column. Our goal is to fill in the whole grid
with numbers, making sure no number is repeated in any row or column.
3. The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine
(in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage
using the mathematical operation indicated.
4. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number. If you see a
single-cell cage with just a number and no operator, it means that the value in
that cell is the target number. Such single-cell cages work like in Sudoku puzzles.
You won’t see these in every puzzle, but when you see one, you should start there.
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5. A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.
KenKen Puzzles Example
Figure a Figure b
First fill in single box cages, called "freebies" with Write the possible numbers for each box
the target number. considering the cage and operations.
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Figure c. Eliminate numbers 2 and 1 Figure d. From Figure c it shows that the circled
that are with the same column and numbers 4 found their location.
row of the freebies 2 and 1.
Figure e. Eliminate # 4 that are with Figure f:
the same column and row of the result
in Figure d.
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Figure g: Eliminate the numbers that are with
the same column and row of the result in Figure f.
The final result then will be:
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UNIT 2: PROBLEM SOLVING
Video viewing: Polya explains the problem solving technique
[Link]
INTRODUCTION
Every day we encounter problems. For sure, everyone has felt at least once in his or
her life how wonderful it is if we could solve a problem at hand, preferably without much
difficulty or even with some difficulties. Unfortunately, problem-solving is an art at this point,
for there are no universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically, one must
explore possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across the right path to
a solution. However, in general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one develops
one's own techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible.
In this section, we are going to learn problem-solving and get a glimpse of strategies
that are often used by experts. They are based on the work of Polya. George Polya, known
as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive studies and wrote numerous
mathematical papers and three books about problem-solving. In 1945, he published the
book “How to Solve It: a new aspect of mathematical method” which quickly became his
most prized publication. In his book, he identifies four basic steps of problem-solving and
reveals how the mathematical method of demonstrating a proof or finding an unknown can
be of help in attacking any problem that can be “reasoned” out.
Polya’s famous four-step method for problem solving
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First Step: Understand the problem
Guide questions:
❏ Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
❏ What are you asked to find or show?
❏ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
❏ Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the
problem?
❏ Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
If so, then:
1. What is the unknown?
2. What is the data?
3. What is the condition?
4. Is it possible to satisfy the condition?
5. Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?
6. Or is it insufficient? Or redundant? Or contradictory?
7. Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
8. Separate the various parts of the condition. Write them down.
Second Step: Devise a plan
Find the connection between the data and the unknown and obtain a plan of the
solution. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve
a problem. Polya mentioned that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. Here
are some strategies used:
a. Working Backwards. This is the strategy that “advertises” itself by stating the end
conditions of the problem and asking to find the starting conditions.
b. Logical Reasoning. Problems involving logical reasoning often include a
substantial amount of data that, at first glance, appears overwhelming and
confusing. In this strategy you need to draw logical conclusions from such data.
c. Finding a pattern. A powerful problem-solving strategy for problems is examining
data to see if a pattern exists then use it to solve the problem. Used if a series of
numbers or events are in the problem.
d. Creating a visual representation. If the situation described in the problem is difficult
to visualize, a diagram, using simple symbols or pictures, may enable us to see the
situation more easily.
e. Solve a similar but simpler problem. This is used when it is not possible to gather,
explore, understand, relate, conjecture and to analyze data, in a meaningful way.
In this case, it would be better to formulate an equivalent problem but simpler
form.
f. Organizing Data. This is used if a problem presents an excessive amount of data.
A table or a list are used to organize the data in a problem.
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g. Considering Extreme Cases. In this strategy, the existence of extreme positions is
often the key to understanding existence results. By considering extremes, we may
be changing variables in the problem, but only those that do not affect the actual
problem situation.
h. Adopt a Different Point of View. A problem can be solved in a more efficient and
interesting manner if we approach it from a different point of view. That is, instead
of considering the problem in the most direct and obvious manner, a different
approach may yield the answer quickly and more efficiently.
i. Accounting all [Link] to solve problems that indicate different
possibilities. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities
j. Write an Equation. One of the first steps in working with problems is to translate the
problem into symbolic terms where all key concepts are identified and defined to
come up with an equation. This is effectively applicable for algebraic problems.
k. Intelligent Guessing and Testing. This strategy is used when no other strategy is
immediately obvious. Here we make a guess (and it must be an intelligent guess,
not just an uninformed stab at the problem) and then proceeds to test that guess
within the conditions of the problem. We repeat the process until we succeed.
The skill of choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many
problems.
Third Step: Carry out the plan
In this step we solve the problem applying the plan we devised. All we need in this
step is care and patience, given that we have the necessary skills. If it continues not to work,
discard it and use another plan.
Fourth Step: Look back
This step is the time to reflect and look back at what we have done, what worked,
and what didn’t. Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
Example 7: In a room with 10 people, everyone shakes hands with everybody else exactly
once. How many handshakes are there?
Solution:
Step 1: Understanding the Problem:
Unknown: number of handshakes in a room
Given: 10 people shakes hands with everybody exactly once
Step 2: Devise a plan:
❏ Visual representation
❏ Accounting for all possibilities
❏ Looking for a pattern
❏ Organizing data
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Step 3: Carry out the plan:
a. Visual Representation (Draw a Diagram)
Let us use our visual representation strategy, by drawing a diagram. The 10
points (no 3 of each are collinear) represent the 10 people. Begin with the person
represented by point A.
We join A to each of the other 9 points, indicating the first 9 handshakes
that take place.
Now, from B there are 8 additional handshakes (because since A has
already shaken hands with B). Similarly, from C there will be 7 lines drawn to the
other, from D there will be 6 additional lines or handshakes, and so on. When we
reach point I, there is only one remaining handshake to be made, namely, I with
J, since I has already shaken hands with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Thus, the sum of the
handshakes equals 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45. In general, this is same as
using the formula for sum of the first n natural numbers, where 𝑛 > 2. (Notice that
the final drawing will be a decagon with all of its diagonals drawn.)
b. Accounting all possibilities
Consider the grid shown below, which indicates persons A, B, C, . . . , H, I, J,
shaking hands with one another. The diagonal with 𝑥’𝑠 indicates that people
cannot shake hands with themselves.
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The remaining cells indicate doubly with all other handshakes (i.e., A
shakes hands with B and B shakes hands with A). thus we take the total number
of cells (102 ) minus those on diagonal (10) and divide the result by 2. In this
100−10
case, we have = 45.
2
𝑛2 −𝑛
In a general case for the 𝑛 × 𝑛 grid, the number would be , which
2
𝑛(𝑛−1)
is equivalent to the formula .
2
c. Adopting a different point of view
Let’s now examine the problem by adopting a different point of view.
Consider the room with 10 people, each of whom will shake 9 other people’s
hands. This seems to indicate that there are 10 × 9 or 90 handshakes, but we must
divide by 2 to eliminate the duplication.
d. Finding for a Pattern
Let’s try to solve the problem by looking for a pattern. The table shown
below lists the number of handshakes occurring in a room as the number of people
increases.
Number of people in Number of handshakes Total number of total
room for additional person handshakes in room
1 0 0
2 1 1
3 2 3
4 3 6
5 4 10
6 5 15
7 6 21
8 7 28
9 8 36
10 9 45
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The third column, the total number of handshakes, gives a sequence of
numbers known as the triangular numbers, whose successive differences increase
by one each time. It is, therefore, possible to continue the table until we reach the
corresponding sum for the ten people. Alternatively, we note that the pattern at
each entry is half the product of the number of people and the number of
handshakes for additional people.
e. Organizing Data
We can approach a problem by careful use of an organizing data strategy.
The chart below shows each of the people in the room and the number of people
they have to shake with each time, given that they already shaken the hands of
their predecessors and don’t shake their own hands. If there are 10 people in the
room one will shake hands with the other 9 people, making 9 handshakes; and if
there are 9 people in the room one will shake hands with the other 8 people,
making 8 handshakes and so on, until we reach person number 2, who only has
one person’s hand to shake, and person number 1 has no other hands to shake.
Again, the sum is 45.
Organizing data
No. of people 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
No. of handshakes 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Step 4. Look Back: After reviewing, we can say:
There are 45 handshakes in the room with 10 people.
Example 8: Evelyn, Harley, and Al play a certain game. The player who loses each round
must give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. In round
1, Evelyn loses and gives Henry and Al as much money as they have. In Round 2, Henry
loses, and gives Evelyn and Al as much money they each then have. Al loses in round 3
and gives Evelyn and Henry as much money as they each have. They decided to quit at
this point and discover that they each have ₱24. How much money did each start with?
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem
Unknown: Amount of money Evelyn, Henry, and Al each had before they started to
play.
Given: Each has 24 pesos at the end of the game. The player who loses each round
must give each of the other players as much money as the player has at that time
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Step 2: Devise a plan
Consider this question from the problem “How much money did they start with?” This
is a sign the problem is best solved by working backwards.
Step 3. Carry out a plan
We apply working backwards.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 3 24 24 24
End of round 2
End of round 1
Start
Since Al lost at the end of round 3 and the player who loses each round must
give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. This means
that Al gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Henry’s money. Evelyn’s money at the
end of round 2 was 12 and so with Henry.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 3 24 24 24
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1
Start
In round 2, Henry lost, he gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Al’s money.
Evelyn’s money at the end of round 1 was 6 and Al’s money at the end of Round 1
was 24.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 3 24 24 24
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1 12 − 6 = 6 12 + 6 + 24 = 42 48 − 24 = 24
Start 6 + 21 + 12 = 39 42 − 21 = 21 24 − 12 = 12
In round 1, Evelyn lost, she gave half of Henry’s money and half of Al’s money.
Henry’s money at the start was 21 and Al’s money at the start was 12.
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Step 4. Look Back:
At the end of round 1 Evelyn lost so she gave Henry ₱21 and gave Al ₱12 leaving her ₱6.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2
End of round 3
At the end of round 2 Henry lost so he gave Evelyn ₱6 and gave Al ₱24 leaving him ₱12.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3
At the end of round 3 Al lost so he gave Evelyn ₱12 and gave Al ₱12 leaving him ₱24.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3 12 + 12 = 24 12 + 12 = 24 48 − 12 − 12 = 24
At the end of round 3 it shows that they ₱24 each.
This proves our answer that Evelyn began with ₱39, Henry began with ₱21 and Al
began with ₱12.
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Learning Reinforcement 4
Directions: Write your solutions and answers on a clean sheet of
paper, or you may print this page and answer there. Submit the
image of your HANDWRITTEN SOLUTIONS as a single pdf file in the
submission bin for this activity in the Classroom. You may use
image scanning apps on your phone (CamScanner or Tap
Scanner) to save several images into one pdf file, or place your
images in a document and save them as a pdf file.
1. Four friends (including Adam) were at the company
picnic. Each friend had a different drink (one was juice), with a different mix added
(one had vanilla). From the clues provided can you figure out which friend had which
drink and what was added to his/her drink?
CLUES
• Wilma did not drink water mixed with her lemon.
• Only the men drank soda or water.
• Mary was not the one who had water & lime.
• David did not mix his drink with lime.
• The woman who had strawberry did not have tea.
2.
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3. Solve the following problems following Polya’s Four Step Method and employing the
different strategies discussed. Write the problem and present the solution neatly
and organized.
5
a. Frosia delivers prescriptions for the local pharmacy. On Tuesday, she delivered 9 of
3
the prescriptions already in the delivery van and then 4
of the remaining
2
prescriptions. After picking up 10 more prescriptions at the store, she delivered 3 of
those she had with her. She then picked up an additional 12 prescriptions and
7
delivered 8 of those she had in the van. Finally, she up 3 more and then delivered
the remaining 5 prescriptions. How many prescriptions did she deliver?
b. Joyce invited 17 friends to a dinner party at her house last Friday evening. She
gave each guest a card with a number from 2 through 18, reserving number 1 for
herself. When she had everyone paired off at the dinner table, she noticed that
the sum of each couple’s numbers was perfect square. What number did Joyce’s
partner have?
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