Polarization

• The phenomena of interference and diffraction proved successfully the

wave character of light.
• It cannot confirm whether light is a transverse wave or a longitudinal
wave.
• Interference and diffraction occur in transverse as well as longitudinal
waves.
• The transverse nature of light was first confirmed by an optical
phenomenon called polarization.
• Polarization is defined as a process of restricting the vibrations of a
transverse wave to one direction or in one plane only.
▪ When a wave passes through a medium such as water or a rope, the particles of the
medium are set into vibrations.
▪ If these vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation, the wave is said to be
a transverse wave.
▪ If the vibrations travel parallel to the direction of propagation, it is referred to as a
longitudinal wave.
▪ In the case of transverse wave motion, the particles of the medium can vibrate in an infinite
numbers of planes.
o The phenomenon of polarization shows the transverse nature of light rays.
o Light is made up of electromagnetic rays, it has electric and magnetic fields.
o The electric and magnetic fields are represented by electric and magnetic field
vectors. These field vectors are perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of light rays.
o The electric field vector E and magnetic field vector B are perpendicular to
each other
▪ In a transverse wave, if the vibrations are in all possible directions, it is an
unpolarized wave. When the vibrations of the particles of the medium are
confined to a single plane, the wave is said to be polarized.
 Classification of Polarized Light
• Polarization is classified into three different types
(1) Plane/ linear polarized light, (2) Circularly polarized light and (3), Elliptical polarized light.

• Plane polarized light is also called linearly polarized light. In this, the vibrating electric
vectors of the light wave are confined to a single plane called the plane of vibration and the
corresponding magnetic vectors are confined in the plane of polarization

✓ If we move one end of a string up and down, then a transverse wave is generated. Each point of the
string executes a sinusoidal oscillation in a straight line (along the x axis), and the wave is called as a
linearly polarized wave. It is also known as a plane polarized wave because the string is always
confined to the xz plane.
❖ The displacement for such a wave can be written in the form

The y coordinate of the displacement is always zero, Further, at arbitrary point z = z0 will execute simple
harmonic motion of amplitude a
The string vibrate in the yz plane
 Circularly polarized light
Circularly polarized light in which the vibrating light vectors of the light wave are confined
to the plane of vibration, on which tips of the light vectors move in a circular path. The
corresponding magnetic vectors are confined in the plane of polarization.

In circularly polarized wave, and the corresponding displacement is

X2+y2=r2
Elliptically polarized light is defined as the polarized light in which vibrating light
vectors of the light wave are confined to the plane of vibration, on which tips of the light
vectors move in an elliptical path
▪ Consider a long narrow slit placed in the path of the
string.
▪ If the length of the slit is along the direction of the
displacement, then the entire amplitude will be
transmitted.
▪ On the other hand, if the slit is at right angles to the
direction of the displacement, then almost nothing
will be transmitted to the other side of the slit.
▪ The reason is slit allows only the component of the
displacement, which is along the length of the slit, to
pass through.
▪ However, if a longitudinal wave were propagating
through the string, then the amplitude of the
transmitted wave would have been the same for all
orientations of the slit.
It proves the transverse character of light waves.
However, before we discuss the experiment with light waves, we must define an
unpolarized wave.

polarized beam falls on another slit S2, then by rotating slit S2 we obtain a variation of the
transmitted amplitude, the second slit is said to act as an analyzer.
 Polarized beam of light from two SHM acting at right angle
Consider the propagation of two linearly polarized electromagnetic waves, the electric vectors
oscillating along the x axis.
The electric fields are

where a1 and a2 represent the amplitudes of the waves, θ1 and θ 2 are phase constants
Resultant of these two waves is
E=E1+E2

a is the amplitude of the wave

Superposition of two linearly polarized electromagnetic waves (both propagating along the z
axis) but with their electric vectors oscillating along two mutually perpendicular directions.

To find the state of polarization of the resultant field, we consider the time variation of the
resultant electric field at an arbitrary plane perpendicular to the z axis. If Ex and Ey represent
the x and y components of the resultant field
E (= E1 + E2),

1
 For θ=0, the equation 1 becomes

𝐸𝑥 = 𝑎1 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝐸𝑦 = 𝑎2 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝐸𝑥
Therefore 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑎2
𝑎1

This is the equation of a straight line and the wave is said to be linearly
polarized
 The equation 1 are with z = 0. For θ= nπ

In the Ex Ey plane, the equation 2 represents a straight line;

the angle ϕ that this line makes with the Ex axis depends on the ratio a2/a1. In fact

The condition θ = nπ implies that the two vibrations are either in phase (n = 0, 2, 4, . . .) or
out of phase (n = 1, 3,5, . . .).
The superposition of two linearly polarized electromagnetic waves with their electric fields at right
angles to each other and oscillating in phase is again a linearly polarized wave with its electric vector.

In general, oscillating in a direction which is different from the fields of either of the two waves.
For θ≠nπ (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .), the resultant electric vector does not, in general, oscillate along a
straight line.

First consider the simple case corresponding to θ = π /2 with a1 = a2.

𝐸𝑥2 𝐸𝑦2 If a1=a2 then equation becomes

2 + 2 =1 𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 = 𝑎12

𝑎1 𝑎2

It represents an ellipse
θ =0 θ =π/2 θ =π θ =3π/2 θ =2π

θ =π/2 θ =3π/2
Note: In these figures we
have taken a1=a and a2=b
Tip of the electric vector rotates on the circumference of a circle (of radius a1) in the
counterclockwise direction, and the propagation is in the +z direction which is coming out of
the page.

For θ = 3π/2, we have

This also represent a circularly polarized wave, the electric vector will rotate in the
clockwise direction.
The ellipse will degenerate into a straight line or a circle when θ becomes an even or an odd
multiple of π/2.

In general, when a1 ≠ a2, one obtains an elliptically polarized wave which degenerates into a
straight line for θ = 0, π, 2 π, . . ., etc.
Methods of Polarization

[Link] by reflection
[Link] by refraction
[Link] by double refraction
[Link] by selective absorption
[Link] by scattering
 Polarization by reflection / Brewster’s Law
Consider a plane wave incident on a dielectric. We assume that the electric vector associated
with the incident wave lies in the plane of incidence.
The angle of incidence θ is such that

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑝

𝑛2
tan 𝜃𝑝 =
𝑛1

−1
𝑛2
𝜃𝑝 = tan
𝑛1
It is called Brewster’s law
if an unpolarized beam is incident at this angle, then the reflected beam will be linearly
polarized with its electric vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

At this angle of incidence, the reflected and the transmitted rays are at right angles to one
another

The angle θp is known as the polarizing angle or the Brewster angle.

𝑛2 Substitute n1= 1 here

tan 𝜃𝑝 =
𝑛1

tan 𝜃𝑝 = 𝑛2

sin 𝜃𝑝
From Snell’s law, 𝑛2 =
sin 𝜃𝑟
 sin 𝜃𝑝
tan 𝜃𝑝 =
sin 𝜃𝑟

sin 𝜃𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑝
=
cos 𝜃𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑟

sin 𝜃𝑟 = cos 𝜃𝑝 = sin 900 − 𝜃𝑝

𝜃𝑟 = 900 − 𝜃𝑝

𝜃𝑟 + 𝜃𝑝 = 900

1. The reflected and refracted rays are at right angle to each other.
2. The refracted index of the substance varies with wavelength of incident light, hence the
polarizing angle is different for different wavelengths.
 Polarization by Double Refraction
✓ Let us perform an experiment. Make a dot on a paper with a pen. Place a crystal of calcite
over the dot and look through the crystal.
✓ Two images of the dot are seen. When the crystal is rotated about a vertical axis with the eye
above the crystal.
✓ one image remains stationary while the other moves around it.
✓ The fixed image is called the ordinary ray and the other one is called the extraordinary
ray.

In the same way when a ray of unpolarized light is incident normally on the surface of a
calcite rhomb, it breaks up into two rays, one of which passes without deviation and the
other deviates within the crystal
• A beam of unpolarized light passes through anisotropic crystals such as quartz or calcite, the
beam will split up into two refracted beams. It is known as double refraction or birefringence.

• The direction in which the ray of transmitted light does not suffer double refraction inside the
crystal is known as the optic axis.

• If only one optic axis is present in a

crystal then it is called uni-axial
crystal.

• On the other hand if two optic axes

are present in a crystal then it is known
as biaxial crystals.
• The refracted beams are plane
polarized
 • One beam is polarized along the direction of the optic axis and is known as extraordinary
ray (e-ray), while the other refracted beam is polarized along the direction perpendicular
to the optic axis and is known as ordinary ray (o-ray).

• The ordinary ray or o-ray obeys the laws of refraction for all angles of incidence of the
light
• The extraordinary ray or e-ray, which is refracted even at normal incidence.
• The velocity of the ordinary ray is the same in all directions, whereas that of the e-ray is
different in different directions.

✓ Uniaxial crystals have only one optic axis. Examples are calcite, quartz and tourmaline.
✓ In biaxial crystals there are two optic axes. These two axes make a certain angle with
each other which is characteristic of the crystal. Mica and borax are biaxial crystals.
Applications
• Polarizers for a broad range of applications in the electronics, photographic, scientific,
and industrial markets.
• Polarizing filters are very important in applications that require glare reduction due to
reflected light .
• Polarizing filters (often called polarizers) it reduces or sometimes remove the unwanted
reflections from the images. As a result it enhances the color saturation

• Polarimeters are devices it can detect the pure or impure form optical substances.
• The polarimeter calibrated to read directly the percentage of cane sugar in a solution is
called sacharimeter.
• Polarimeters can be used to estimate the specific rotation or rotary power of a
substance or of a mixture of optically active and optically inactive substances.
Polaroid it is an optical device utilized to produce plane polarized light by the
phenomenon of double refraction and selective absorption of light.

Polaroids are generally thin films, it contains microcrystals of iodosulphate quinine

embedded in nitrocellulose material.
The axes of microcrystals are parallel to one another.

If a unpolarized light is incident perpendicularly on the polaroid sheet, then the electric
vectors that are parallel to hydrocarbon chain of the molecules are absorbed, and the
electric vectors of light that are perpendicular to the hydrocarbon chain of the molecules
are transmitted.

Hence, the direction perpendicular to the hydrocarbon chain is called the transmission axis
of the polaroid. The transmitted light is linearly polarized

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