Computer Networks — Lecture Notes
Subject: Computer Science
Introduction to Networks
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that communicate and share resources.
Networks enable file sharing, communication, internet access, and distributed computing. Networks are
classified by size: LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), and WAN (Wide Area
Network).
OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model divides network communication into seven layers:
Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has specific
responsibilities and communicates with the layers directly above and below it. The model provides a
framework for understanding and troubleshooting network protocols.
TCP IP Model
The TCP/IP model is the practical framework used on the internet. It has four layers: Network Access,
Internet, Transport, and Application. The Internet Protocol (IP) handles addressing and routing. The
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable, ordered, connection-oriented communication. UDP
provides faster but unreliable connectionless communication.
IP Addressing
Every device on a network has an IP address that identifies it. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses written as four
decimal octets (e.g., [Link]). IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses to accommodate the growing number of
internet-connected devices. Subnetting divides a network into smaller sub-networks, improving efficiency
and security.
Routing and Switching
Switches operate at the data link layer and forward frames within a local network based on MAC
addresses. Routers operate at the network layer and forward packets between different networks based
on IP addresses. Routing protocols such as RIP, OSPF, and BGP determine the optimal path for data.
DNS and DHCP
DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names (e.g., [Link]) into IP
addresses. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) automatically assigns IP addresses to devices
on a network. Both services are fundamental to the usability of modern networks and the internet.
Network Security
Network security protects data during transmission. Firewalls filter incoming and outgoing traffic based on
rules. VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) encrypt traffic over public networks. SSL/TLS encrypts web traffic.
Common threats include man-in-the-middle attacks, DDoS attacks, packet sniffing, and phishing.
Wireless Networks
Wireless networks transmit data using radio waves. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 standards) is the most common
wireless technology. WPA3 is the current standard for wireless security. Bluetooth is used for short-range
device communication. Cellular networks (4G, 5G) provide wide-area wireless connectivity.
Application Layer Protocols
Application layer protocols define how applications communicate over a network. HTTP/HTTPS is used for
web browsing. SMTP, POP3, and IMAP handle email. FTP and SFTP transfer files. SSH provides secure
remote access. Each protocol defines message formats, error handling, and communication procedures.
Network Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting network issues requires systematic diagnosis. Common tools include ping (tests
reachability), traceroute (shows the path packets take), nslookup (queries DNS), netstat (displays network
connections), and Wireshark (captures and analyzes packets). Following the OSI model from bottom up
helps isolate problems layer by layer.
Summary
Computer networking is the backbone of the modern digital world. Understanding the OSI model, TCP/IP,
IP addressing, routing, and security enables engineers to design, implement, and maintain reliable and
secure networks. Practical experience with networking tools and labs is essential to complement
theoretical knowledge.