Statistics for Engineers

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Overview

1 Syllabus

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Overview

1 Syllabus

2 Introduction

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Overview

1 Syllabus

2 Introduction

3 Module 1
Measures of Central Tendancy
Measures of Dispersion
Moments
Skewness
Kurtosis

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics
2 Random variables

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics
2 Random variables
3 Correlation and Regression

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics
2 Random variables
3 Correlation and Regression
4 Probability Distributions

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics
2 Random variables
3 Correlation and Regression
4 Probability Distributions
5 Hypothesis Testing - I

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics
2 Random variables
3 Correlation and Regression
4 Probability Distributions
5 Hypothesis Testing - I
6 Hypothesis Testing - II

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Syllabus

1 Introduction to Statistics
2 Random variables
3 Correlation and Regression
4 Probability Distributions
5 Hypothesis Testing - I
6 Hypothesis Testing - II
7 Reliability

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Books

Text books
1 R. E. Walpole, R. H. Mayers, [Link] and Statistics for
Engineers and Scientists, 9th Edition, Pearson Education (2012)
2 Douglas C. Montgomery, George C. Runger, Applied Statistics and
Probability for Engineers, John Wiley & Sons, 5th Edition (2010).

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Books

Text books
1 R. E. Walpole, R. H. Mayers, [Link] and Statistics for
Engineers and Scientists, 9th Edition, Pearson Education (2012)
2 Douglas C. Montgomery, George C. Runger, Applied Statistics and
Probability for Engineers, John Wiley & Sons, 5th Edition (2010).

Reference Books
1 E. Balagurusamy, Reliability Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill, Tenth
reprint 2010.
2 J.L Devore, Probability and Statistics , 8th Edition, Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning (2012)
3 R. A. Johnson, Miller & Freund’s, Probability and Statistics for
Engineers, 8th Edition, PHI (2010).

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Introduction

Data

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Introduction

Data - collection of any number of related observations

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Introduction

Data - collection of any number of related observations

Statistics deals with collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of the numerical data

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Introduction

Data - collection of any number of related observations

Statistics deals with collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of the numerical data
There are two major types of statistics: (a) Descriptive Statistics, (b)
Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics - consist of methods of organizing and
summarizing information. (includes construction of graphs, charts,
tables and calculation of mean, median, mode, measures of variation.
Inferential Statistics - consist of methods of drawing conclusions
based on the information. (includes estimation, hypothesis testing)

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Illustration

Example
Consider the event of tossing dice. The dice is rolled 100 times. The
results are 5,4,5,6,6,6,1,1,1,1,1,2,5,5,3,2,1,4,4,4,4,2,2,6,6,6,6,2,...

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Illustration

Example
Consider the event of tossing dice. The dice is rolled 100 times. The
results are 5,4,5,6,6,6,1,1,1,1,1,2,5,5,3,2,1,4,4,4,4,2,2,6,6,6,6,2,...
Descriptive statistics is used for grouping the data to the following table

Outcome of the roll Frequencies

1 10
2 20
3 18
4 16
5 11
6 25

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Illustration

Example
Consider the event of tossing dice. The dice is rolled 100 times. The
results are 5,4,5,6,6,6,1,1,1,1,1,2,5,5,3,2,1,4,4,4,4,2,2,6,6,6,6,2,...
Descriptive statistics is used for grouping the data to the following table

Outcome of the roll Frequencies

1 10
2 20
3 18
4 16
5 11
6 25

Inferential statistics can be used to verify whether the dice is a fair or not.

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Statistics

Population
is the set of observations or individuals corresponding to an entire
collection of units for which inferences are to be made.
Example: The books in our library, The students of VIT.

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Statistics

Population
is the set of observations or individuals corresponding to an entire
collection of units for which inferences are to be made.
Example: The books in our library, The students of VIT.

Sample
is a subset of a population that are actually collected in the course of an
investigation. Example: The collection of Statistics books in our library,
The students of our class.

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Statistics

Example
Let the blood types of 40 persons are as follows: O, O, A, B, A, O, A, A,
A, O, B, O, B, O, O, A, O, O, A, A, A, A, AB, A, B, A, A, O, O, A, O, O,
A, A, A, O, A, O, O, AB.

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Statistics

Example
Let the blood types of 40 persons are as follows: O, O, A, B, A, O, A, A,
A, O, B, O, B, O, O, A, O, O, A, A, A, A, AB, A, B, A, A, O, O, A, O, O,
A, A, A, O, A, O, O, AB.

Blood type Frequencies

O 16
A 18
B 4
AB 2
Total 16

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Statistics

Example
Let the blood types of 40 persons are as follows: O, O, A, B, A, O, A, A,
A, O, B, O, B, O, O, A, O, O, A, A, A, A, AB, A, B, A, A, O, O, A, O, O,
A, A, A, O, A, O, O, AB.

Blood type Frequencies

O 16
A 18
B 4
AB 2
Total 16

Try to graph this data (pie chart and bar graph)

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Measures of Central Tendancy

Data are classified as

Individual observations or raw data
Discrete data
Continuous data

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Measures of Central Tendancy

Data are classified as

Individual observations or raw data
Discrete data
Continuous data

The Central measures are

Mean
Median
Mode
Geometric mean
Harmonic mean

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Mean (Individual observations or raw data)

Mean (Direct method)

P
X1 +X2 +...+XN Xi
X̄ = N = N where N is the total number of observations.

Example
Given the monthly income of 10 employees in an office,
1780,1760,1690,1750,1840,1920,1100,1810,1050,1950
Find the mean of their monthly income (or Average).

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Mean (Individual observations or raw data)

Mean (Direct method)

P
X1 +X2 +...+XN Xi
X̄ = N = N where N is the total number of observations.

Example
Given the monthly income of 10 employees in an office,
1780,1760,1690,1750,1840,1920,1100,1810,1050,1950
Find the mean of their monthly income (or Average). Mean=1665

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Mean (Individual observations or raw data)

Mean (Direct method)

P
X1 +X2 +...+XN Xi
X̄ = N = N where N is the total number of observations.

Example
Given the monthly income of 10 employees in an office,
1780,1760,1690,1750,1840,1920,1100,1810,1050,1950
Find the mean of their monthly income (or Average). Mean=1665

Mean (Short-cut method)

Taken an assumed mean A
Find the deviations:
P
d =X −A
d
X̄ = A + N

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Mean (Discrete data)

Direct method P
fX
X̄ =
N
Short-cut method P
fd
X̄ = A +
N
where A is the assumed mean, d = X − A, N is the total number of
observations.

Problem
1. From the following data of the marks obtained by 60 students of a
class. Calculate the arithmetic mean.

Marks 20 30 40 50 60 70
No. of students 8 12 20 10 6 4

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Mean (Discrete data)

Direct method P
fX
X̄ =
N
Short-cut method P
fd
X̄ = A +
N
where A is the assumed mean, d = X − A, N is the total number of
observations.

Problem
1. From the following data of the marks obtained by 60 students of a
class. Calculate the arithmetic mean.

Marks 20 30 40 50 60 70
No. of students 8 12 20 10 6 4

Arithmetic mean=41
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Mean (Continuous data)

Direct method P
fX
X̄ = ( )
N
Short-cut method P
fd
X̄ = A + ( )∗h
N
where A is the assumed mean, d = X −A h , N is the total number of
observations, h is the class size, X is the mid value of each class
interval.

Example
From the following data, compute arithmetic mean

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

No. of students 5 10 25 30 20 10

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Mean (Continuous data)

Direct method P
fX
X̄ = ( )
N
Short-cut method P
fd
X̄ = A + ( )∗h
N
where A is the assumed mean, d = X −A h , N is the total number of
observations, h is the class size, X is the mid value of each class
interval.

Example
From the following data, compute arithmetic mean

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

No. of students 5 10 25 30 20 10

X̄ = 33
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Problem

Compute mean for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100
No. of students 5 12 25 8

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Median
Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.

For raw data:

If N is odd, then Median is X N+1
2
X N +X N +1
If N is even, then Median is 2
2
2

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Median
Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.

For raw data:

If N is odd, then Median is X N+1
2
X N +X N +1
If N is even, then Median is 2
2
2

Discrete data:
Find the cummulative frequencies (c.f.)
Identify the Median as average of N2 th observation and N2 + 1 th
observation (if N is even) or N+1
2 th observation (if N is odd) using c.f.

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Median
Arrange the data in ascending or descending order.

For raw data:

If N is odd, then Median is X N+1
2
X N +X N +1
If N is even, then Median is 2
2
2

Discrete data:
Find the cummulative frequencies (c.f.)
Identify the Median as average of N2 th observation and N2 + 1 th
observation (if N is even) or N+1
2 th observation (if N is odd) using c.f.
Continuous data:
Find the cummulative frequencies (c.f.)
N
Identify the Median class as the class that contains 2 th observation
N
−c.f .
Median = L + ( 2
f ∗ h where L is the lower limit of the median
)
class, c.f. is the cummulative frequency of the class preceding to the
median class, f is the frequency of the median class, and h is the
median class size.

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Problems

1. Compute median for the following data:

1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400

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Problems

1. Compute median for the following data:

1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400
Median= 1150

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Problems

1. Compute median for the following data:

1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400
Median= 1150
2. Compute median for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

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Problems

1. Compute median for the following data:

1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400
Median= 1150
2. Compute median for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

Median = 1500

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Problems

1. Compute median for the following data:

1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400
Median= 1150
2. Compute median for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

Median = 1500
3. Calculate the median for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

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Problems

1. Compute median for the following data:

1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400
Median= 1150
2. Compute median for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

Median = 1500
3. Calculate the median for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

Median = 39.6

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Problems

4. An incomplete frequency distribution is given below.

Variable 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 Total

frequency 12 30 f1 65 f2 25 18 229

Given that the median value is 46, determine the missing frequencies.
f1 = 34, f2 = 45

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Mode
Mode
The observation with maximum frequency

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Mode
Mode
The observation with maximum frequency

Discrete data:
If the frequency distribution is regular, then the observation with
maximum frequency is the mode.
For irregular frequency distribution, mode is calculated by the method
of grouping.

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Mode
Mode
The observation with maximum frequency

Discrete data:
If the frequency distribution is regular, then the observation with
maximum frequency is the mode.
For irregular frequency distribution, mode is calculated by the method
of grouping.
Continuous data:
If the frequency distribution is regular, then the Class interval with
maximum frequency is the modal class. Then Mode
1 −f0
= L + ( 2f1f−f 0 −f2
) ∗ h where L is the lower limit of the modal class, f1 is
the frequency of the modal class, f0 is the frequency of the class
preceding the modal class, f2 is the frequency of the class succeeding
the modal class, and h is the modal class size.
For irregular frequency distribution, mode is calculated by the method
of grouping.
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Problems

1. Compute mode for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

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Problems

1. Compute mode for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

Mode = 1800

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Problems

1. Compute mode for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

Mode = 1800
2. Calculate the mode for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

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Problems

1. Compute mode for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

Mode = 1800
2. Calculate the mode for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

Modal class is 30-60. From the problem, f1 = 25, f0 = 12, f2 = 8

Mode = 43

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4. The median and mode are Rs.33.50 and Rs.34 respectively for the
following data.

Wages 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 Total

frequency 4 16 f1 f2 f3 6 4 230

5. Find mean, median, and mode for the following data:

CI 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 100-120 120-140 140-160

f 8 12 20 30 40 35 18

CI 160-180 180-200
f 7 5

Mean=108.5, Median=108.75, Mode=118.3

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Problems on Inclusive intervals

Exclusive intervals: Lower limit included but upper limit excluded

Inclusive intervals: Lower and upper limits are included
6. Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the following data:

CI 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59

f 3 15 10 8 3 1

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Problems on Inclusive intervals

Exclusive intervals: Lower limit included but upper limit excluded

Inclusive intervals: Lower and upper limits are included
6. Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the following data:

CI 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59

f 3 15 10 8 3 1

7. Compute mean and median for the following data

Height (in cm) < 140 < 145 < 150 < 155 < 160 < 165
No. of students 4 11 29 40 46 51

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Problems on Inclusive intervals

Exclusive intervals: Lower limit included but upper limit excluded

Inclusive intervals: Lower and upper limits are included
6. Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the following data:

CI 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59

f 3 15 10 8 3 1

7. Compute mean and median for the following data

Height (in cm) < 140 < 145 < 150 < 155 < 160 < 165
No. of students 4 11 29 40 46 51

The empirical relationship is Mode= 3 Median - 2 Mean

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Geometric Mean

Geometric mean isPthe nth root of product of n observations.

G.M. = Antilog ( log N
(xi )
) (raw data) where N is the total number of
observations. P
G.M. = Antilog ( fi log
N
(xi )
) ( Discrete or Continuous data) where N
is the total frequency.

Problem
Calculate G.M. for 125, 1462, 38, 7, 0.22, 0.08, 12.75, 0.5
G.M.=6.952

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Harmonic Mean

Harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocal

of observations.
H.M. = PN 1 (raw data)
xi

H.M. = PN 1 (Discrete or Continuous data)

fi x
i

Problem
Find H.M. of 2574, 475, 75, 5, 0.8, 0.08, 0.005, 0.0009.
H.M. = 0.006

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Measures of dispersion

Range
Quartile Deviation
Mean Deviation
Standard Deviation

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Range

Range is the difference between max observation and min observation

Problems
1. Find the range of 1100, 1150, 1080, 1120, 1200, 1160, 1400.
Range= 1400-1080=320
2. Find the range of the following data:

X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
f 3 8 15 23 35 40 32 28 20 45 14 6

Range=12-1=11
3. Find the range of the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

Range=100-0=100
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Quartile Deviation

Order the given data and find the cummulative frequencies.

N
−c.f .
First Quartile = Q1 = L + ( 4
f ) ∗ h where L is the lower limit of
the first quartile class.
Second Quartile (Q2 ) coincides with Median
3N
−c.f .
Third Quartile = Q3 = L + ( 4
f ) ∗ h where L is the lower limit of
the third quartile class
Q3 −Q1
Quartile Deviation = 2
Inter-quartile range = Q3 − Q1
Q3 −Q1
Coefficient of Quartile Deviation = Q3 +Q1

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Problems

1. Find all the quartiles, quartile deviation, and coefficient of quartile

deviation for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

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Mean Deviation
P
For raw data, Mean deviation = N|Di | where N is the total number
of observations and Di = X − A, A is a central measure (Mean or
Median or Mode) P
For discrete or continuous data, Mean deviation = fNi |Di | where N is
the total frequency.

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Mean Deviation
P
For raw data, Mean deviation = N|Di | where N is the total number
of observations and Di = X − A, A is a central measure (Mean or
Median or Mode) P
For discrete or continuous data, Mean deviation = fNi |Di | where N is
the total frequency.

Problems
1. Calculate the mean deviation about median for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

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Mean Deviation
P
For raw data, Mean deviation = N|Di | where N is the total number
of observations and Di = X − A, A is a central measure (Mean or
Median or Mode) P
For discrete or continuous data, Mean deviation = fNi |Di | where N is
the total frequency.

Problems
1. Calculate the mean deviation about median for the following data:

Income (Rs.) 1000 1500 800 2000 2500 1800

No. of persons 24 26 16 20 6 30

2. Calculate the mean deviation about median for the following data:

Marks 0-10 10-30 30-60 60-100

No. of students 5 12 25 8

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Standard Deviation
qP
(xi )2
P
xi 2
Raw data: σ = N −( N ) where N is the total number of
observations. qP
fi (xi )2
P
fi xi 2
Discrete or Continuous data: σ = N −( N ) where N is
the total frequency.
qP
fi (di )2
P
fi di 2
Discrete or Continuous data: σ = ( N − ( N ) ) ∗ h where
xi −A
N is the total frequency and di = h

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Standard Deviation
qP
(xi )2
P
xi 2
Raw data: σ = N −( N ) where N is the total number of
observations. qP
fi (xi )2
P
fi xi 2
Discrete or Continuous data: σ = N −( N ) where N is
the total frequency.
qP
fi (di )2
P
fi di 2
Discrete or Continuous data: σ = ( N − ( N ) ) ∗ h where
xi −A
N is the total frequency and di = h

Problems
1. Calculate standard deviation for the following data:

X 10 11 12 13 14
f 3 12 18 12 3

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Problems

2. From the following data, compute standard deviation

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

No. of students 5 10 25 30 20 10

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Problems

2. From the following data, compute standard deviation

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60

No. of students 5 10 25 30 20 10

Coefficient of Variation
σ
C.V = x̄ ∗ 100%

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Problems
1. Goals scored by two teams in a foot ball season were as follows:

No. of goals scored 0 1 2 3 4 5

No. of matches (Team A) 15 10 7 5 3 2
No. of matches (Team B) 20 10 5 4 2 1

State which team is more consistent. (A is more consistent.)

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Problems
1. Goals scored by two teams in a foot ball season were as follows:

No. of goals scored 0 1 2 3 4 5

No. of matches (Team A) 15 10 7 5 3 2
No. of matches (Team B) 20 10 5 4 2 1

State which team is more consistent. (A is more consistent.)

2. Two brands of tyres are tested with the following results

Life ( in ’000 miles) 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45

No. of tyres (Brand X) 1 22 64 10 3
No. of tyres (Brand Y) 0 24 76 0 0

(a) Which brand of tyres have greater average life?

(b) Compare the variability and state which brand of tyres would you use
on your fleet of trucks?
X̄ = 32.1, σX = 3.441, C .VX = 10.72%, Ȳ = 31.3, σY = 2.136, C .VY =
6.824%, (a) X has greater average life (b) Y is more consistent
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Moments

Central moment
The A.M of various powers of the deviations about mean

(x − x̄)r
P
µr = raw data
N

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Moments

Central moment
The A.M of various powers of the deviations about mean

(x − x̄)r
P
µr = raw data
N
(f (x − x̄)r )
P
µr = P frequency distribution
f

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Moments

Central moment
The A.M of various powers of the deviations about mean

(x − x̄)r
P
µr = raw data
N
(f (x − x̄)r )
P
µr = P frequency distribution
f

Moments about Assumed mean or Origin

(x − A)r dr
P P
0
µr = = raw data
N N

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Moments

Central moment
The A.M of various powers of the deviations about mean

(x − x̄)r
P
µr = raw data
N
(f (x − x̄)r )
P
µr = P frequency distribution
f

Moments about Assumed mean or Origin

(x − A)r
P P r
0 d
µr = = raw data
N N
(f (x − A)r ) (fd r )
P P
0
µr = P = ( P ) ∗ hr frequency distribution
f f

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Calculation of central moments using moments about
origin

µ1 = 0

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Calculation of central moments using moments about
origin

µ1 = 0
0 0
µ2 = µ2 − (µ1 )2 = σ 2

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Calculation of central moments using moments about
origin

µ1 = 0
0 0
µ2 = µ2 − (µ1 )2 = σ 2
0 0 0 0
µ3 = µ3 − 3µ1 µ2 + 2(µ1 )3

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Calculation of central moments using moments about
origin

µ1 = 0
0 0
µ2 = µ2 − (µ1 )2 = σ 2
0 0 0 0
µ3 = µ3 − 3µ1 µ2 + 2(µ1 )3
0 0 0 0 0 0
µ4 = µ4 − 4µ1 µ3 + 6(µ1 )2 µ2 − 3(µ1 )4

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Calculation of central moments using moments about
origin

µ1 = 0
0 0
µ2 = µ2 − (µ1 )2 = σ 2
0 0 0 0
µ3 = µ3 − 3µ1 µ2 + 2(µ1 )3
0 0 0 0 0 0
µ4 = µ4 − 4µ1 µ3 + 6(µ1 )2 µ2 − 3(µ1 )4
1. Calculate the first four central moments from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2

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Calculation of central moments using moments about
origin

µ1 = 0
0 0
µ2 = µ2 − (µ1 )2 = σ 2
0 0 0 0
µ3 = µ3 − 3µ1 µ2 + 2(µ1 )3
0 0 0 0 0 0
µ4 = µ4 − 4µ1 µ3 + 6(µ1 )2 µ2 − 3(µ1 )4
1. Calculate the first four central moments from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2
0 0 0 0
µ1 = 7, µ2 = 130, µ3 = 1900, µ4 = 37000
µ1 = 0, µ2 = 81, µ3 = −144, µ4 = 14817
Module - I 32 / 38
Problems

2. Calculate the first four central moments from the following data :

Marks (above) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
No. of students 150 140 100 80 80 70 30 14 0
Table 1: Mark distribution of students

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Problems

2. Calculate the first four central moments from the following data :

Marks (above) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
No. of students 150 140 100 80 80 70 30 14 0
Table 1: Mark distribution of students

CI f x d = x−35
10
fd fd 2 fd 3 fd 4
0-10 10 5 -3 -30 90 -90 810
10-20 40 15 -2 -80 160 -320 640
20-30 20 25 -1 -20 20 -20 20
30-40 0 35 0 0 0 0 0
40-50 10 45 1 10 10 10 10
50-60 40 55 2 80 160 320 640
60-70 16 65 3 48 144 432 1296
70-80 14 75 4 56 224 896 3584
P P P 2 P 3 P 4
f = 150 fd = 64 fd = 808 fd = 1228 fd = 7000

0 0 0 0
µ1 = 4.27, µ2 = 538.67, µ3 = 8186.67, µ4 = 466666.67
µ1 = 0, µ2 = 520.44, µ3 = 1442.02, µ4 = 384770.13

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Skewness
Lack of symmetry (measures the assymetry of the distribution)

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Skewness
Lack of symmetry (measures the assymetry of the distribution)
tells the degree and direction of departure from symmetry

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Skewness
Lack of symmetry (measures the assymetry of the distribution)
tells the degree and direction of departure from symmetry
if the distribution has longer tail towards right - positive skewness.
(Mean > Median > Mode)

Module - I 34 / 38
Skewness
Lack of symmetry (measures the assymetry of the distribution)
tells the degree and direction of departure from symmetry
if the distribution has longer tail towards right - positive skewness.
(Mean > Median > Mode)
if the distribution has longer tail towards left - negative skewness.
(Mode > Median > Mean)

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Skewness

Measure of skewness using moments

µ23 p
β1 = , γ1 = β1
µ32

If µ3 > 0 , then positive skewness, else negative skewness.

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Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of peakness.
measure of Kurtosis
µ4
β2 = , γ2 = β2 − 3
(µ2 )2

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Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of peakness.
measure of Kurtosis
µ4
β2 = , γ2 = β2 − 3
(µ2 )2

If γ2 = 0, then the distribution is Normal or Mesokurtic.

If γ2 > 0, then the distribution is Leptokurtic.
If γ2 < 0, then the distribution is Platykurtic.

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Problems

1. Calculate the measure of Skewness ( using moments) and measure of

Kurtosis from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2

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Problems

1. Calculate the measure of Skewness ( using moments) and measure of

Kurtosis from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2
0 0 0 0
µ1 = 7, µ2 = 130, µ3 = 1900, µ4 = 37000
µ1 = 0, µ2 = 81, µ3 = −144, µ4 = 14817

Module - I 37 / 38
Problems

1. Calculate the measure of Skewness ( using moments) and measure of

Kurtosis from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2
0 0 0 0
µ1 = 7, µ2 = 130, µ3 = 1900, µ4 = 37000
µ1 = 0, µ2 = 81, µ3 = −144, µ4 = 14817
µ2 √
Measure of Skewness: β1 = µ33 = 0.039, γ1 = β1 = 0.1975
2

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Problems

1. Calculate the measure of Skewness ( using moments) and measure of

Kurtosis from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2
0 0 0 0
µ1 = 7, µ2 = 130, µ3 = 1900, µ4 = 37000
µ1 = 0, µ2 = 81, µ3 = −144, µ4 = 14817
µ2 √
Measure of Skewness: β1 = µ33 = 0.039, γ1 = β1 = 0.1975
2
µ4
Measure of Kurtosis: β2 = µ22
= 2.2583, γ2 = β2 − 3 = −0.7417

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Problems

1. Calculate the measure of Skewness ( using moments) and measure of

Kurtosis from the following data :

Class Interval 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Frequency 1 3 4 2
0 0 0 0
µ1 = 7, µ2 = 130, µ3 = 1900, µ4 = 37000
µ1 = 0, µ2 = 81, µ3 = −144, µ4 = 14817
µ2 √
Measure of Skewness: β1 = µ33 = 0.039, γ1 = β1 = 0.1975
2
µ4
Measure of Kurtosis: β2 = µ22
= 2.2583, γ2 = β2 − 3 = −0.7417
The distribution is Platykurtic and negative skewed (sign of µ3 ).

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Problems

2. The first three moments of a distribution about the value 3 of a

variable are 2,10 and 30 respectively. Obtain mean,µ2 , µ3 , and hence β1 .
Comment upon the nature of skewness. Also determine the first three
moments about zero.

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Problems

2. The first three moments of a distribution about the value 3 of a

variable are 2,10 and 30 respectively. Obtain mean,µ2 , µ3 , and hence β1 .
Comment upon the nature of skewness. Also determine the first three
moments about zero. (x̄ = 5, µ1 = 0, µ2 = 6, µ3 = −14, moments about
zero are 5, 31, 201)

Module - I 38 / 38
Problems

2. The first three moments of a distribution about the value 3 of a

variable are 2,10 and 30 respectively. Obtain mean,µ2 , µ3 , and hence β1 .
Comment upon the nature of skewness. Also determine the first three
moments about zero. (x̄ = 5, µ1 = 0, µ2 = 6, µ3 = −14, moments about
zero are 5, 31, 201)
3. The standard deviation of a symmetrical distribution is 3. What must
be the value of the fourth moment about the mean in order that the
distribution is mesokurtic?

Module - I 38 / 38
Problems

2. The first three moments of a distribution about the value 3 of a

variable are 2,10 and 30 respectively. Obtain mean,µ2 , µ3 , and hence β1 .
Comment upon the nature of skewness. Also determine the first three
moments about zero. (x̄ = 5, µ1 = 0, µ2 = 6, µ3 = −14, moments about
zero are 5, 31, 201)
3. The standard deviation of a symmetrical distribution is 3. What must
be the value of the fourth moment about the mean in order that the
distribution is mesokurtic?(µ4 = 243)

Module - I 38 / 38
Problems

2. The first three moments of a distribution about the value 3 of a

variable are 2,10 and 30 respectively. Obtain mean,µ2 , µ3 , and hence β1 .
Comment upon the nature of skewness. Also determine the first three
moments about zero. (x̄ = 5, µ1 = 0, µ2 = 6, µ3 = −14, moments about
zero are 5, 31, 201)
3. The standard deviation of a symmetrical distribution is 3. What must
be the value of the fourth moment about the mean in order that the
distribution is mesokurtic?(µ4 = 243)
4. The mean and SD of a set of 100 observations were worked out as 40
and 5 respectively. But by mistake a value 50 was taken in place of 40 for
one observation. Calculate the correct mean and SD.

Module - I 38 / 38
Problems

2. The first three moments of a distribution about the value 3 of a

variable are 2,10 and 30 respectively. Obtain mean,µ2 , µ3 , and hence β1 .
Comment upon the nature of skewness. Also determine the first three
moments about zero. (x̄ = 5, µ1 = 0, µ2 = 6, µ3 = −14, moments about
zero are 5, 31, 201)
3. The standard deviation of a symmetrical distribution is 3. What must
be the value of the fourth moment about the mean in order that the
distribution is mesokurtic?(µ4 = 243)
4. The mean and SD of a set of 100 observations were worked out as 40
and 5 respectively. But by mistake a value 50 was taken in place of 40 for
one observation. Calculate the correct mean and SD. (x̄ = 39.9, σ = 4.9)

Module - I 38 / 38