Amplifiers
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power of a
signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting, and in audio
equipment of all kinds. Many different types of amplifier are found in electronic circuits.
The main types of amplifier are.
A.C. Coupled Amplifiers
In A.C. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that D.C. levels are
isolated and only the A.C. components of a signal are transferred from stage to stage.
D.C. Coupled Amplifiers
In D.C. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way that stages are
not isolated to D.C. potentials. Both A.C. and D.C. signal components are transferred from
stage to stage.
Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to provide an appreciable voltage and/or current levels
(typicallyfrom 1 V to 100 V or more).
Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to provide a low-level signals (normally less than 1 V
and often smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have to be specially designed to reduce the effects
of noise.
Audio frequency amplifiers
Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated
with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of frequencies, typically
from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.
Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible noise (signal
disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are usually designed for use with
very small signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).
Radio frequency amplifiers
Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is normally associated
with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1 GHz). Note that it is desirable for amplifiers
of this type to be frequency selective and thus their frequency response may be restricted
to a relatively narrow band of frequencies.
Gain
The important parameter of an amplifier is the amount of amplification or gain that it
provides. Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output current to
input current, or output power to input power. These three ratios give, respectively,
the voltage gain, current gain and power gain.
Thus:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
Current gain, 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Power gain, 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Power is the product of current and voltage(P=IV) we can infer that:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑣 = = × = 𝐴𝐼 × 𝐴𝑣
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Input and output resistance
Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in ohms.
➢ The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive component is
negligible) in the middle of its working frequency range (i.e. the mid-band).
➢ In some cases, the reactance of the input may become appreciable (e.g. if a large value
of stray capacitance appears in parallel withthe input resistance).
➢ In such cases we would refer to input impedance rather than input resistance.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current and
is measured in ohms.
➢ This resistance is internal to the amplifier and should not be confused with the
resistance of a load connected externally.
➢ As with input resistance, the output of an amplifier is normally purely resistive and we
can safely ignore any reactive component.
➢ If this is not the case, we would once again need to refer to output impedance rather
than output resistance.
Fig. shows how the input and output resistances are ‘seen’ looking into the input and output
terminals, respectively.
Frequency response:
➢ The frequency response characteristics for various types of amplifier are shown in
Fig. [Link] that, for response curves of this type, frequency is almost invariably
plotted on a logarithmic scale.
➢ The frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper
and lower cut-off frequencies of the amplifier. These frequencies are those at which
the output power has droppedto 50% (otherwise known as the 3 dB points) or
where the voltage gain has dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value.
➢ Figs 7.10 and 7.11, respectively, show how the bandwidth can be expressed in terms
of either power or voltage (the cut-off frequencies, f1 and f2, and bandwidth are
identical).
Bandwidth
➢ The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between the upper and
lower cut-off frequencies (i.e. f2 and f1 in Figs 7.10 and 7.11).
➢ The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the range of
frequencies present within the signals that it is to be presented with.
Phase shift
➢ Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal voltages measured
in degrees
➢ Conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of either 180° or
360°.
Negative feedback
➢ Advantages of negative feedback:
1. To precisely control the gain.
2. Reduce distortion and
3. Improve bandwidth
➢ The gain can be reduced to a manageable value by feeding back a small proportion of
the output.
➢ The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed-loop) gain.
➢ Because this form of feedback has the effect of reducing the overall gain of the circuit,
this form of feedback is known as negative feedback.
➢ An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a way as to
reinforce the input (rather than to subtract from it) is known as positive feedback. This
form of feedback is used in oscillator circuits
➢ Fig. 7.13 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback
applied. In this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is
given by β and the overall voltage gain will be given by:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Overall Gain = (1)
𝑉𝑖𝑛
(2)
Rearranging the equation (2)
(3)
(4)
Substituting equation (3) and (4) in (1)
𝐴 ×𝑉 ′
𝑣 𝑖𝑛 𝑣 𝐴 ×𝑉 ′
𝑖𝑛
Overall gain = 𝑉 ′ +𝛽𝑉 = 𝑉 ′ +𝛽(𝐴
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 ×𝑣 ′
𝑣 𝑖𝑛 )
Therefore
𝐴𝑣
𝐺=
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣
Hence, the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be less than the gain without
feedback the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be given by:
1
𝐺 = 𝛽 (when Av is very large)
Note, also, that the loop gain of a feedback amplifier is defined as the product of β and Av.
Multi-stage amplifiers
➢ In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently necessary to use a
number of interconnected stages within an amplifier.
➢ The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is
simply the product of the individual voltage gains.
➢ Hence:
AV ×AV1 × AV2 × AV3, etc.
➢ Note, however, that the bandwidth of a multi- stage amplifier will be less than the
bandwidth of each individual stage. In other words, an increase in gain can only be
achieved at the expense of a reduction in bandwidth.
➢ Signals can be coupled between the individual stages of a multi-stage amplifier using
one of a number of different methods shown in Fig. 7.43
➢ The most commonly used method is that of R–C coupling as shown in In Fig. 7.43(a).
In this coupling method, the stages are coupled together using capacitors having a low
reactance at the signal frequency and resistors (which also provide a means of
connecting the supply).
➢ A similar coupling method, known as L–C coupling, is shown in Fig. 7.43(b). In this
method, the inductors have a high reactance at the signal frequency. This type of
coupling is generally only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.
➢ Two further methods, transformer coupling and direct coupling, are shown in Figs
7.43(c) and 7.43(d), respectively. The latter method is used where d.c. levels present
on signals must be preserved.