Module 2
Water Purification
Prepared by
Prof. Reshma Antony
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MACE
1
Importance of Water Treatment
Health and Safety
• Untreated water can carry pathogens causing diseases like cholera,
typhoid, and hepatitis. Water treatment prevents outbreaks and ensures
safe drinking water.
Environmental Protection
• Water treatment reduces the impact of pollutants on natural ecosystems. It
helps maintain the balance in aquatic habitats and preserves biodiversity.
Industrial and Agricultural Benefits
• Industries require treated water for processing, cooling, and cleaning.
Similarly, irrigation systems benefit from water free of harmful chemicals
and sediment.
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Purification of Water Supplies
• Raw water collected must be treated and purified before they can be
supplied to general public
• Treatment level (extent of treatment) depends on the type of
application
• Public water supplies generally designed from the view point of the
quality requirements of drinking water
• Should also be suitable for industrial purposes like dyeing, steam
generation etc.
• Must be good in appearance and attractive to human taste and
tongue
3
Methods of Purification of Water
1. Screening
2. Plain Sedimentation
3. Sedimentation aided with Coagulation
4. Filtration
5. Disinfection
6. Aeration
7. Softening
8. Miscellaneous treatments – fluoridation, recarbonation liming,
desalination etc.
All of the above techniques may or may not be used for treating a
particular water 4
• Big objects trees , branches, sticks, vegetations, fish, etc. present
in raw surface water can be removed by screening
• Coarser suspended materials can be removed by letting the
water settle in sedimentation basins (Plain Sedimentation)
• Effectiveness of Sedimentation may however be increased by
mixing certain chemicals with water, to form flocculent
precipitate, which carries suspended particles as it settles
(Chemical Coagulation)
• Still finer particles which avoid settling in Chemical coagulation
process can be removed by filtration
5
• Still some pathogenic bacteria remains
• Can be removed by adding some chemicals such as Chlorine
• This process of killing od germs is called disinfection
• Resulting water may be safe but may not be attractive
• Unpleasant tastes and odors may be removed by adding certain
compounds such as activated carbon or by using Ozone
(Aeration)
6
• Resulting water may be harder than permissible – to be softened
by a process called softening
• Fluoridation (Adding fluoride for controlling dental caries)
• Liming (adding lime to control acidity and reduce corrosion)
• Recarbonation ( adding CO2 to prevent deposition of Calcium
Carbonate scales)
• Desalination (remove excess salt)
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Video
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Layout of Conventional Water Treatment
Plant
Depending upon the magnitude of treatment required, proper unit operations are
selected and arranged in the proper sequential order for the purpose of modifying the
quality of raw water to meet the desired standards.
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The Indian Standard code set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for drinking water
quality – IS 10500 : 2012
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The types of treatment required for different
sources are given in the following table:
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Aeration
• Aeration removes odour and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen
sulphide and due to algae and related organisms.
• Aeration also oxidise iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen
content in water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes
methane and other flammable gases.
• Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in
water escape into atmosphere from the air-water interface and
atmospheric oxygen takes their place in water, provided the water
body can expose itself over a vast surface to the atmosphere.
• This process continues until an equilibrium is reached depending on the
partial pressure of each specific gas in the atmosphere.
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Types of Aerators
[Link] aerators
[Link] aerators
[Link] aerators
[Link] aerators.
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Types of Aerators
• Gravity Aerators (Cascades): In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by
gravity such that a large area of water is exposed to atmosphere,
sometimes aided by turbulence.
• Fountain Aerators : These are also known as spray aerators with special
nozzles to produce a fine spray. Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter
discharging about 18 to 36 l/h. Nozzle spacing should be such that each m3
of water has aerator area of 0.03 to 0.09 m2 for one hour.
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Gravity Aerators (Cascades)
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Fountain Aerators
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Types of Aerators
• Injection or Diffused Aerators : It consists of a tank with perforated
pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed at the bottom to release fine air
bubbles from compressor unit. The tank depth is kept as 3 to 4 m and
tank width is within 1.5 times its depth. If depth is more, the diffusers
must be placed at 3 to 4 m depth below water surface. Time of
aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is required for 1
litre of water.
• Mechanical Aerators : Mixing paddles are used. Paddles may be
either submerged or at the surface.
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Injection or Diffused Aerators
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Mechanical aerators
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Screening
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Screening
Provided infront of intakes or pumps to exclude large sized particles
such debris, animals, trees, branches etc.
Types of Screens
• Coarse screens (trash racks) – Consists of Parallel iron rods placed
vertically or at slight slope, at about 2.5 to 5 cm apart
• Fine Screens – Usually made of woven wire mesh with openings not
more than 6mm square
Coarse screens first remove the bigger floating bodies and organic
solids. Fine screens then remove the fine suspended solids
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• Coarse screens are normally kept inclined at about 45 -60 degrees to
the horizontal, so as to increase the opening area to reduce the flow
velocity
• Screens are designed in such a way that the clear openings should
have sufficient total area, so that the velocity through them is not
more than 0.8 to 1 m/s
• Collected material is removed either manually or mechanically
• Two types – Fixed bar type and moveable bar type screens
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Fixed Bar screens
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Moveable screens
• Mainly used for fine screens. These are endless belts of fine screening
or a series of panels of fine wire mesh mounted on a chain. Driven
with the help of a motor
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Fine Screens
• Perforations 1.5 mm to 3 mm in size
• Removes 20 % of suspended solids from sewage
• Get clogged very often and needs frequent cleaning
• Normally used for industrial waste water treatment
• Brass and bronze plates are used
• Disc or drum type operated with electric motors
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Plain Sedimentation (Type I
Settling)
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Settling
Solid liquid separation process is separated into two phases –
• Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation
tank (overflow).
• Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the
sedimentation tank (underflow).
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Purpose of Settling
• To remove coarse dispersed phase.
• To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
• To remove precipitated impurities after chemical
treatment.
• To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge
process / tricking filters.
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Principle of Settling
• Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater
than that of water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as
the turbulence is retarded by offering storage.
• Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
• Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the
settling tank is called the detention period.
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Types of Settling
• Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without
interaction with neighboring particles.
• Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to
increase in mass and settle at a faster rate.
• Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to
settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed positions
with respect to each other.
• Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high that
sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure.
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Type I Settling (Discrete)
• Size, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with
time.
• Settling velocity remains constant
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• Settling velocity of a spherical particle is expressed by Stokes law,
• vs= (rs-rw)gd2
18υ
• vs= (G-1)gd2
18υ
• υ = kinematic viscosity (m2/sec)
• D = dia of particle in m
• G= sp gravity of the particle = rs / rw
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• If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting
upon it:
(1) force of gravity: Fg=rpgVp
(2) the buoyant force quantified by Archimedes as: Fb=rgVp
• Net force , Fnet=(rp-r)gVp
• Once the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to
viscous friction. This force, called the drag force, is quantified by:
Fd=CDA rw v2/2
CD= drag coefficient.
A = area of the particle.
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• Drag force increases with increasing velocity till it becomes equal to
effective weight of the particle and at that time v = vs
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Stokes Eqn for Settling velocity (vs) Derivation
(Refer your notebook for Derivation)
• Effective weight of the particle = Total weight – Bouyancy
•
( Weight = [Link] x Volume)
(rp-r)gVp = CDAprvs2/2
For spherical particles, Vp=pd3/6 and Ap=pd2/4
Thus, v2= 4g(rp-r)d
3 CD r
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• Expressions for CD change with characteristics of different flow regimes. For laminar,
transition, and turbulent flow, the values of CD are:
CD = 24 (laminar)
Re
(Re <0.5)
CD= 24 + 3 +0.34 (transition)
Re Re1/2
CD= 0.4 (turbulent), Re > 10000
• where Re is the Reynolds number:
• Re=rvd
m
• Reynolds number less than 0.5 indicate laminar flow, while values greater than 10000
indicate turbulent flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow.
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• Stokes Flow
• For laminar flow, terminal settling velocity(Vs) equation
becomes:
vs= (rp-r)gd2
18m
which is known as the stokes equation.
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Streamline settling & Turbulent Settling
• Stoke’s Equation given is valid for particles of size less than 0.1mm, where viscous
force predominates over inertial force
This is called streamline settling
• If the particle size > 1mm, the nature of settling becomes turbulent settling, which is
governed by Newton’s equation, given by
• If grit particle size lies between 0.1 and 1 mm, in the transition zone, where settling
velocity is given by Hazen’s eqn
(where Ss is specific gravity of grit particles, T is temperature in degree celcius, d is
the dia)
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• Actual settling velocities of particles will < theoretical values
calculated using formulas because of non-sphericity of particles,
upward displacement of fluid etc.
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Factors affecting settlement
• Velocity of flow which carries the particle horizontally
• The viscosity of water (depends on temperature)
• The size , shape and specific gravity of the particle
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Types of Sedimentation Basins
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Two factors are controlled in Sedimentation
tanks
• Velocity of flow
• Size and shape of the particle
(Viscosity and temperature left uncontrolled)
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Types of Settling Tanks
• Sedimentation tanks may function either intermittently
or continuously.
• The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are
those which store water for a certain period and keep it in
complete rest.
• In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only
reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is
done in an intermittent type.
• Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in
plan. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are
generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral
flow.
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Long Rectangular Settling Basin
• Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and
flow control for large volumes is easier with this
configuration.
• A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2
to 4 times their width. The bottom is slightly sloped to
facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge
scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge
hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.
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• A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four
different functional zones:
Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly
distributed over the cross section such that the flow
through settling zone follows horizontal path.
Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent
conditions.
Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and
discharge through outlet weir.
Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling
zone.
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Type of Sedimentation Tanks
• Horizontal flow tanks
• Vertical or up flow tanks
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Horizontal flow tanks
• Achieve equal velocity at all points lying on each vertical line in the
settling zone
• Direction of flow is horizontal
• Two types : Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow, Circular tanks
with radial flow, with central feed or peripheral feed
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Horizontal flow tanks
• Rectangular tanks with longitudinal flow
• Continuous flow type of sedimentation (Only velocity of flow is
reduced and water is not brought to rest). Mechanical scrapper
will be provided to scrap the sludge to te sludge pit , periodically
removed without stopping the working of the tank
• Intermittant type (Mechanical scrappers may not be provided and
tank has to be cleaned by stopping the operation of the tank. Raw
water is kept at rest say for 24 hours. 30 to 36 hours required for
cleaning or maintenance)
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Horizontal flow tanks
• Circular tanks with radial flow, with central feed –
• water enters at the centre of the tank in to a circular well. Flow will be
radially towards the periphery of the tank. The aim is to provide
uniform radial flow with decreasing velocity towards periphery, from
where the water is withdrawn
• Scarper blades are provided for sludge removal
• Sludge removed either manually or mechanically
• Circular tanks with radial flow, with peripheral feed –
• Water enters at the periphery and flow radially inwards
• Detention is more , better performance
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Vertical flow or Upflow Settling tanks
• Normally combines sedimentation with flocculation
• Square or circular in plan
• Hopper bottoms
• Influent enters at the bottom of the unit
• Upflow velocity is decreased by increasing the cross sectional area of
the tank
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Design Concepts in Plain Sedimentation Tanks
Terminology
• Overflow velocity or Overflow rate or Surface overflow rate (SOR) or
surface loading (vo)
• The flow velocity with which the tank is designed to operate
• Settling velocity (vs)
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Case of Upflow sedimentation tank
• If the particle is to be removed from the bottom of the tank, settling
velocity should be greater than overflow rate
• If vs > vo , 100% removal of sludge is possible
• Otherwise 0% sludge removal
• For successful design of sedimentation tank , the aim is to find
settling velocity and fix the overflow velocity rate at some lower value
• Usually vo= 80 % of vs, for an up flow clarifier
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Overflow rate (vo)
vo = Discharge / Surface area
• vo = Q / Surface area
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Horizontal Sedimentation Tank
• Particles and their velocity vectors are evenly distributed across the tank
cross section
• The liquid moves as an ideal slug , down the length of the tank
• Any particle hitting the bottom of the tank will be removed
Flow velocity (v) = Q/BH
B = Width of the tank
H = Depth of water in the tank
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Horizontal Sedimentation tank
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• Consider a discrete particle entering the tank at the top of the basin at point A at
full water height H from the bottom
• If the particle has to settle down in the tank, the resultant of velocity vectors , in
extreme case must move along AC, so that particle touches the tank bottom
• From geometry,
v/vs = L /H
• vs = v. H/L
• vs = (Q/BH) . (H/L)
vs= Q / As = over flow rate (vo)
• As = surface area
• Thus surface overflow rate can be said to be representing the settling velocity of
the slowest settling particles, which are 100 % removed
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Design tips
• Normally adopted values of overflow rate 12 -18 m3/day per m2 of
the plan area for plain sedimentation tanks (type I settling)
• 24 to 30m3/day per m2 for sedimentation with coagulation (type II)
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Detention Period
• Average theoretical time required for the water to flow through the tank
length
• Average time for which water is detained in the tank
• Ratio of volume of the basin to the rate of flow through the basin
• Please note here the volume of circular tank with cone shaped bottom with
1:1 slope is used 68
Design concepts
• Detention time usually varies between 4 to 8 hours for plain
sedimentation and from 2 to 4 hours when coagulants are used.
• Width of tank kept 10 m and should not exceed 12 m
• Length of tank should not exceed 4 times the width
• Flow velocity generally kept 0.3 m/min ( varies between 0.15 to 0.9
m/min)
• Total amount of flow from the tank = max daily demand of water
• Depth ranges between 3 to 4.5 m, with 1.8 as minimum and 6 m as
maximum
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Displacement Efficiency
• For efficient removal of sediment in sedimentation tanks, the flow should
be uniformly distributed through out the cross section of the tank
• If there are currents , it permits the water to leave the tank without being
detained, then the flow is said to be short-circuited
• Inlet and outlet to be properly designed
• In practical situation there will be some short circuiting
• Actual average time for which the batch of water takes in passing through a
settling tank, is called flowing through period, is always less than
detention period
• flowing through period < detention period
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Displacement Efficiency
• Varies between 0.25 to 0.5 in normal sedimentation tank
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Construction Details of Sedimentation Tank
• Inlet and Outlet arrangements of Sedimentation tank
• At inlet provide a channel extending full width by constructing a weir
type baffle wall (for a rectangular settling tank)
• Similarly an outlet channel for full width of the tank receiving the
water after it has passed over a weir
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Cleaning and Sludge removal from
Sedimentation tanks
• Sediment settled at the bottom in the sludge zone has to be removed periodically
• If not removed it reduces the capacity of the tank, leads to the formation of foul
gases due to the decomposition of organic matter
• Manually or mechanically
• In modern water treatment plants generally mechanical devices will be provided for
sludge removal. Removed sludge will be brought to sludge hopper and removed
daily
• In manual cleaning the tank is put out of service and supply of raw water is stopped.
Water is drained , till the depth remains 30 cm.
• The sludge is stirred and removed as slurry. Pick axes are used to remove hard
deposits
• If no mechanical devices provided , an additional minimum depth of 0.8 to 1.2 m
has to be provided for the storage of sediment , which is called sludge zone
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Check for Scour
• If the flow velocity is more than scour velocity there is a chance of
upliftment of already settled particles
• To Prevent Scouring: The flow velocity of the water in the tank should
be less than the scour velocity or displacement velocity (vd) to
prevent the settled sludge at the bottom from being disturbed and
carried away.
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Design Problem
• The max daily demand at a water purification plant has been
estimated as 12 million litres per day. Design the dimensions of a
suitable sedimentation tank (fitted with mechanical sludge removal
arrangements) for raw supplies, assuming a detention period of 6
hours and velocity of flow as 20 cm per minute.
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• Q = 12 x 106 litres
• Quantity to be treated in 6 hours = [(12x106)/24 ]* 6 = 3x106 litres
• The capacity of tank required = 3x106 litres
• Velocity of flow = 20cm/min =0.2 m/min
• The length of tank = Velocity of flow x detention period = 72m
• C/s area of tank = Capacity /length = 41.7 m2
• Assume water depth as 4 m, the width of tank = 41.7/4 = 10.42m
• Using a freeboard =0.5m
• Overall depth =4.5m
• 72mx10.5mx4.5m size of tank
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Sedimentation With Coagulation
Type 2 Settling (Flocculent Settling)
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• Very fine suspended mud particles and colloidal particle will not settle
in plain sedimentation
• Such particles can be removed easily by changing them to flocculated
particles
• Chemical compounds are added to the water called Coagulants
• On thorough mixing , form a gelatinous precipitate called ‘floc’.
• Colloidal particles present in water get attracted and absorbed in
these flocs, forming bigger sized flocculated particles
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• Colloidal particles are negatively charged
• The surface charge of colloidal particle gives them long- term stability and
hence the particle which otherwise settle are mutually repelled by their
like charges
• Coagulation is a chemical technique which destabilizes the charged
colloidal particles
• Flocculation , is the slow mixing technique which promotes the
agglomeration of the destabilised particles
• Practically, the entire process of addition of chemicals (coagulants) and
mixing (flocculation) is called as coagulation
• Coagulated water is passed through sedimentation tank, where flocculated
particles settle down and get removed
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Model of Colloidal Particle
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Chemicals used for Coagulation
• Aluminum Sulphate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3.18H2O
• Copperas (Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O)
• Chlorinated Copperas
• Sodium Aluminate Na2Al2O4
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1. Alum
• When added to raw water reacts with bicarbonate alkalinities, forms
a gelatinous precipitate (floc) of aluminium hydroxide
• The floc attracts fine particles and suspended matter , and finally
settles down at the bottom of tank
• Causes permanent hardness to it in the form of Calcium sulphate.
• CO2 gas causes corrosiveness
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Alum- Advantages and Disadvantages
• Works well in pH range 6.5 to 8.3
• Dosage of Alum depends on turbidity of water
• 5 mg/l for clear waters to 85 mg/l for highly turbid waters
• Average normal dosage is 17 mg/l
• Very effective coagulant (Universal coagulant)
• Does not require any skilled supervision, cheap and cost effective
• Reduces the taste and colour of raw water
• Problem is difficulty in dewater the sludge formed and not easy to dispose
• pH range is small
• Requires addition of extra alkalies (raw water should be slightly alkaline)
• Recent technologies for recovering alum 84
2. Copperas (Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O)
• Added to raw water in conjunction with lime
Ferric hydroxide ppt
• Ferric Hydroxide forms the floc and helps in sedimentation
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Copperas (Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O)
• Used in raw waters that are not colored
• Cheaper than alum
• Functions effectively in pH range of 8.5 and above
• Dosage required same as alum
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3. Chlorinated Copperas
• Chlorine added to Copperas
• Ferric sulphate and ferric chloride
• Used where the raw water has low pH value
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4. Sodium Aluminate (Na2Al2O4)
• When mixed with water reacts with salts of Calcium and Magnesium
present in raw water
• Forms precipitates of Ca and Mg Aluminate
• Reduces temporary and permanent hardness present in raw water
supplies rather than increasing the same as is done by alum
• 1.5 times costlier than alum
• Not preferred for public water supplies
• Used for water which do not have natural desired alkalinity and which
cannot be treated by alum
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Constituents of a Coagulation Sedimentation
Plant (Clariflocculator)
• Feeding Device
• Mixing device or mixing basin
• Flocculation tank or flocculator
• Settling or sedimentation tank
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Dorr Co. Clariflocculator
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• The chemical coagulant is fed (either dry or solution) into raw water
through the feeding device.
• The (water + coagulant) mixture is thoroughly mixed and agitated in
the Mixing basin
• The coagulant causes the very fine suspended and colloidal particles to
agglomerate and form 'floc', which happens in the flocculation tank.
• The flocculated water is finally passed into the sedimentation tank
where these flocculated particles settle and are removed.
• Resultant water of low turbidity can be taken out through the outlet of
sedimentation tank
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Methods of Feeding
• Dry Feeding
• Wet Feeding
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Depends on many factors
• Characteristics of Coagulant – if fine and uniform in size, then to be
fed in dry form. If there is a chance for clogging, then to be fed in wet
form (solution form)
• The amount of coagulant to be used
• The cost of the coagulant and the size of the plant
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Dry feeding
• The chemical coagulant is fed into raw water in powdered form.
• Simple in operation, requires less space and cheaper.
• However dosage control is difficult.
• Coagulant (powder) is kept in hopper bottom of tank.
• Agitating plates prevent arching of coagulant.
• The dosage is regulated by the speed of toothed wheel/helical screw
which in turn is controlled by venturi device installed in the raw water
pipes.
• The quantity of coagulant released is in proportion to the quantity of
the raw water entering the mixing tank.
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Dry Feeding
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Wet Feeding
• The chemical coagulant is fed into raw water in solution form.
• The wet feeding equipments are costlier, but they can be easily controlled
and adjusted.
• The coagulant solution is prepared and stored in a tank, from where it is
allowed to trickle down into mixing tank.
• A conical plug type arrangement is used to regulate the rate of coagulant
discharge proportionate to the rate of raw water flow.
• The mixing basin and float chamber are interconnected so that water level is
same in both.
• As the flow of water increases, the depth of water in mixing basin as well as
float chamber increases and thereby lifting the float.
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Wet feeding
• As float rises, the pinion and pulley lifts the conical plug allowing
more flow of coagulant solution into mixing basin.
• When water flow decreases, conical plug descends down and reduces
the coagulant feeding rate.
• Thus coagulant dosage is automatically controlled.
• The chemical which are corrosive in nature create problems in wet
feeding.
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Wet Feeding device
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Mixing Devices
• After adding coagulant to raw water, the mixture is thoroughly mixed
using mixing devices such as centrifugal pumps, compressed air,
mixing basins etc.
• Mixings basins are the most important
Two types
1. Mixing with baffle walls
2. Mixing equipped with mechanical devices
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Mixing Basins with Baffle walls (Horizontal
Flow type)
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• Baffle-type mixing basins are rectangular tanks which are divided by baffle
walls
• Either water flows horizontally around the baffle ends or it flows vertically
over and under the baffles
• The hindrances provided by the baffles in the path of flow give sufficient
agitation
• Velocity of flow in the channels between the baffles is controlled between
0.15 to 0.45 m/sec
• Detention period is kept between 20 to 50 minutes
• Based on this length can be calculated
• Head loss is very high when compared to basins with mechanical devices
• Not normally used these days
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Mixing Basins with Mechanical Devices
• Chemical added to the raw water is
agitated by means of a flash mixer for
rapid dispersion in the raw water
• A tank with an impeller connected to the
impeller shaft.
• Driven by an electric motor, it revolves at
a high speed
• Coagulant is brought by the coagulant
pipe and is discharged under a rotating
fan
• At the inlet, there is a deflecting wall
• Drain valve for removing the sludge
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Flocculator or Flocculation Tank
• Best floc will be formed when the mixture of coagulant and water is
violently agitated followed by gentle stirring to permit the
agglomeration of floc particles
• Rectangular tank with paddles operated by electric motors
• Paddles rotate at a speed of 2 to 3 rpm
• Detention period for this tank ranges from 20 to 60 min
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Sedimentation tank
• Function and design same as that of a plain sedimentation tank
• Detention period is low (2 to 4 hrs)
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