Introduction to Classification and

Microorganisms
1.1 Definition of Classification
Classification is the process of organizing living organisms into groups based on their
similarities and differences in structure, as well as their ancestral origins, to show their biological
relationships.

1.2 Necessity of Classification

Classification is necessary for several reasons:

Identification: It helps in identifying living organisms and placing them into correct groups for
easier reference.
Organization: It arranges information about living organisms in an orderly manner, preventing
chaos and confusion that would arise from arbitrary grouping.
Evolutionary Relationships: It helps us understand the evolutionary history (phylogeny)
between different organisms.
Separation and Grouping: It enables us to separate organisms with different features and
group together those with similar characteristics.

1.3 Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of classification. It has two branches:

Nomenclature: The naming of organisms.

Systematics: Placing organisms into groups, called taxa, based on their similarities and
differences.

Common Names vs. Scientific Names

Feature Common Name Scientific Name
Usage Local names, known by local people Known and accepted
internationally
Language Vernacular language Latin language
Naming Does not bear generic and specific Bears the generic and specific
System names name

Binomial Nomenclature

Binomial nomenclature is the system of naming organisms using two names in Latin, developed
by Carolus Linnaeus.

First name: The generic name, always capitalized.

Second name: The specific name, always in lowercase.
Formatting: Scientific names should be printed in italics or underlined when handwritten/
typed separately.
Latinization: All scientific names are Latinized.
Authority: The name of the scientist who first described and named the organism may be
included (e.g., Pisum sativum Linnaeus).

Example:

Maize: Zea mays (Zea is the genus, mays is the species)

Garden pea: Pisum sativum

1.4 Hierarchical Classification

Classification is organized in a hierarchy, where each group is subdivided into smaller, more
specific groups called taxa. The similarities increase, and differences decrease from the highest
rank to the lowest.

Domain: The broadest category.

Kingdom: The largest group of taxonomic units with the highest number of organisms based
on similar characteristics.
Phylum (for animals) / Division (for plants): Subdivisions of kingdoms.
Class: Subdivisions of phyla/divisions.
Order: Subdivisions of classes.
Family: Subdivisions of orders.
Genus: Subdivisions of families.
Species: The smallest unit with the most specific organisms. Members of the same species
can interbreed freely to produce viable offspring.

Mnemonic Devices for Hierarchical Order:

"Dear King Philip Came Over for Good Soup"

"Do Kids Prefer Cake Over Fried Green Spinach?"

Taxonomic Units Example:

Taxon Garden Pea Maize Domestic Dog Lion Leopard
Kingdom Plantae Plantae Animalia Animalia Animalia
Phylum Angiospermae Angiospermae Chordata Chordata Chordata
Division Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia
Class Rosales Poales Carnivora Carnivora Carnivora
Order Leguminosae Poaceae Canidae Felidae Felidae
Family Pisum Zea Canis Panthera Panthera
Genus Pisum sativum Zea mays Canis familiaris Panthera leo Panthera pardus
Species Pisum sativum Zea mays Canis familiaris Panthera leo Panthera pardus
Lion (Panthera leo) and Leopard (Panthera pardus) are in the same genus (Panthera) but
different species.
Domestic cat (Felis domestica) and Domestic dog (Canis familiaris) are in different families
(Felidae and Canidae respectively), indicating they are not closely related.
Lion and Leopard cannot procreate to produce fertile offspring because they belong to
different species.

1.5 History of Classification

Two Kingdoms Classification (Carolus Linnaeus)
Proposed in 1735.
Divided living things into two kingdoms: Animalia (animals) and Plantae (vegetabilia for
plants).
Classification was based on nutrition and locomotion.
Unicellular organisms (protozoans) were placed under the animal kingdom.
The traditional plant kingdom included bacteria, algae, plants, and fungi.

Three-Domain System (Carl Woese et al., 1977)

Divided cellular life forms into three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryote.
Emphasized the separation of prokaryotes into two groups: Eubacteria (Bacteria) and
Archaebacteria (Archaea).
Based on differences in RNA genes, these two groups and eukaryotes arose separately from
an ancestor with less developed genetic machinery.

Five Kingdom Classification (R. H. Whittaker, 1969)

The most common system in use today.
Divides all living organisms into five kingdoms.

1.6 The Five Kingdoms

The five kingdoms are arranged from simplest to most complex forms:

1. Kingdom Monera
General Characteristics:
Prokaryotic (cell organelles not bound by a nuclear membrane).
Unicellular (single-celled organisms), some live in colonies or singly.
Cell wall made of slimy mucin.
Fewer organelles and lack mitochondria.
Move by flagella.
Single circular DNA molecule, some have plasmids.
Mostly heterotrophic (saprophytic or parasitic), a few are autotrophic.
Reproduce mainly by asexual reproduction (binary fission), some by sexual reproduction
or conjugation.
 Most respire anaerobically, few respire aerobically.

Examples: Bacteria (e.g., Azotobacter, cocci, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus
anthracis, Treponema, Nostoc, Cyanobacteria/blue-green algae).
Study of Bacteria: Bacteriology.

2. Kingdom Protoctista (Protista)

General Characteristics:
Eukaryotic (organelles are nuclear membrane bound).
Unicellular, microscopic, or colonial; some form multicellular thalloids (e.g., Spirogyra).
Have many organelles, including mitochondria.
Reproduce asexually (binary fission, fragmentation, sporulation), some sexually
(conjugation).
Some are motile (use flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia); others are sessile.
Some are autotrophic, others heterotrophic.
Have specialized structures for specific functions (e.g., contractile vacuoles for
osmoregulation).

Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Plasmodium, Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra,

Trypanosome.

3. Kingdom Fungi
General Characteristics:
Eukaryotic.
Some are unicellular (yeast), others multicellular (mushrooms, toadstools, mould).
Store glycogen or oil droplets.
Cell wall made of chitin (some have cellulose).
Basic unit is the hypha; several hyphae form a mycelium.
Some are saprophytes, parasites, or symbiotic.
Reproduce asexually (sporulation, budding) and sexually (conjugation).

Examples: Mushroom, toadstool, yeast, mould (e.g., Rhizopus).

4. Kingdom Plantae
General Characteristics:
Eukaryotic and multicellular.
Most are differentiated into stems, leaves, and roots.
Have cellulose cell walls.
Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Most have vascular bundles (phloem for food transport, xylem for water and mineral
transport).
Exhibit alternation of generations.
Reproduce sexually and asexually.
Show localized movement due to tropisms and taxes.

Major Divisions:
Bryophyta (e.g., mosses, liverworts): Simplest plants, lack vascular transport system, rely
on diffusion. Have rhizoids for anchorage and absorption. Thalloid or simple leaf-like,
 stem-like, and root-like structures. Grow in damp, shady areas. Fertilization depends on
water.
Pteridophyta (e.g., ferns, horsetails): Have roots, stems, and leaves. Possess vascular
systems. Leaves are compound (fronds with leaflets called pinnae). Underside of mature
pinnae bear sori (sporangia). Fertilization depends on water, hence grow in wet
environments.
Spermatophyte (Seed Plants): Produce seeds for reproduction (not detailed in this
section).

5. Kingdom Animalia
General Characteristics:
Multicellular and eukaryotic.
All are heterotrophic.
Cells lack cell walls.
Most exhibit locomotion, a few are sessile.
Most reproduce sexually, a few asexually.

Major Phyla (Examples and Characteristics):

Cnidaria (Coelenterata): Hollow sac-like body with a single opening (mouth) surrounded
by tentacles. Diploblastic body wall (ectoderm and endoderm). Examples: Hydra, jellyfish,
sea anemone.
Platyhelminthes (Flatworms): Flattened bodies, bilaterally symmetrical. Triploblastic body
wall (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm). Acoelomate (no body cavity). Hermaphrodites.
Examples: Planaria (free-living), flukes, tapeworms (parasitic).
Nematoda (Roundworms): Cylindrical, unsegmented body pointed at the ends. Tough
cuticle covering. Pseudocoelom (fluid-filled cavity). Separate male and female sexes.
Examples: Many live in soil, water, or as parasites.
Annelida (Segmented Worms): Segmented bodies. Distinct head and anus. Internal
segmentation by septa. Well-developed circulatory, digestive, and excretory systems.
Examples: Earthworms, leeches.
Mollusca: Soft, unsegmented body, often enclosed in a shell. Live in various habitats.
Examples: Snails, oysters, octopuses, squids.
Arthropoda:
Bodies divided into head, thorax, and abdomen (or cephalothorax). Exoskeleton made of
chitin. Bilaterally symmetrical. Jointed appendages. Unisexual. Examples: Insects
(grasshoppers, butterflies), arachnids (spiders, ticks), crustaceans (crabs, shrimps),
myriapods (millipedes, centipedes).
Classes of Arthropods: Crustacea, Diplopoda (millipedes), Chilopoda (centipedes),
Arachnida (spiders, scorpions), Insecta (three body parts, three pairs of legs).

Chordata:
Includes animals with a notochord at some stage of development.
Class Pisces (Fishes): Scales, fins for movement, streamlined body, gills for gaseous
exchange, lateral line, poikilothermic, single circulatory system with a two-chambered
heart.
Class Amphibia: Moist skin for gaseous exchange, poikilothermic, sexual reproduction
(external in frogs/toads, internal in salamanders), larval stages in water, adults on land,
double circulatory system with a three-chambered heart. Examples: Frogs, toads,
newts.
Class Reptilia: Dry, scaly skin, poikilothermic, three or four-chambered heart, lay
 shelled eggs on land. Examples: Snakes, crocodiles, lizards, turtles.
Class Aves (Birds): Forelimbs modified as wings, hind limbs for walking/swimming/
perching, body covered with feathers, homeothermic, lay shelled eggs.
Class Mammalia: Most covered with hair, heterodont dentition, well-developed ears,
homeothermic, four-chambered heart, sweat and sebaceous glands, diaphragm,
mammary glands, highly developed brain.

2.2 Disease-Causing Organisms (Pathogens)

Pathogens

Pathogens are microorganisms that cause diseases. They exist in five groups: viruses, bacteria,
protozoa, helminths, and fungi. To infect a host, pathogens must enter the body, overcome the
immune system, multiply, and exit to infect other hosts.

Obligate Pathogens: Cannot complete their life cycle outside a host.

Opportunistic Pathogens: Cause disease only when the host's immune system is
compromised.
Accidental Pathogens: Cause disease in a specific host but can infect other hosts and cause
disease.

Modes of Pathogen Transmission

Physical Contact: Skin diseases, sexually transmitted diseases.
Food or Water: Waterborne diseases (e.g., cholera, typhoid).
Air: Airborne diseases (e.g., common cold, flu, tuberculosis).
Vector Transmission:
Transmitted by mechanical or biological vectors (arthropods).
Mechanical Transmission: Vector carries pathogen without being infected (e.g., flies
spreading bacteria from feces).
Biological Transmission: Pathogen reproduces within the vector, which then transmits it
(e.g., mosquito bite transmitting malaria).

Viruses
Characteristics:
Infectious, obligate intracellular parasites.
Composed of genetic material (DNA/RNA) surrounded by a protein coat and sometimes a
host-derived envelope.
Found everywhere; cannot reproduce without a host cell.
Viral infections occur when the immune system is compromised.

Life Cycle:

1. Attachment: Virus binds to the host cell surface.

2. Entry: Virus or its genetic material enters the host cell.
 3. Replication and Gene Expression: Viral genetic material directs the host cell to make viral
components.
4. Assembly: New viral particles are assembled.
5. Release: New viruses are released from the host cell to infect others.

Viral Transmission: Touch, saliva, sexual contact, contaminated needles, food, water, air,
insect vectors (ticks, mosquitoes).
Viral Latency: Some viruses can remain dormant within a cell, becoming active later due to
external stimuli.

Bacteria

(Refer to Kingdom Monera for bacterial characteristics)

Protozoa

(Refer to Kingdom Protoctista for protozoa characteristics)

Helminths (Parasitic Worms)

(Refer to Phylum Platyhelminthes and Nematoda for examples)

Fungi

(Refer to Kingdom Fungi for fungal characteristics)